sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import typing as t
   5from collections import defaultdict
   6from functools import reduce
   7
   8from sqlglot import exp
   9from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  10from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, seq_get
  11from sqlglot.time import format_time
  12from sqlglot.tokens import Tokenizer, TokenType
  13
  14if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  15    from sqlglot._typing import E
  16
  17logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  18
  19
  20class Generator:
  21    """
  22    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  23
  24    Args:
  25        pretty: Whether or not to format the produced SQL string.
  26            Default: False.
  27        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  28            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  29            True or 'always': Always quote.
  30            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  31        normalize: Whether or not to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  32            Default: False.
  33        pad: Determines the pad size in a formatted string.
  34            Default: 2.
  35        indent: Determines the indentation size in a formatted string.
  36            Default: 2.
  37        normalize_functions: Whether or not to normalize all function names. Possible values are:
  38            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  39            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  40            False: Disables function name normalization.
  41        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  42            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  43        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  44            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  45            Default: 3
  46        leading_comma: Determines whether or not the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  47            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  48            Default: False
  49        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  50            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  51            line length.
  52            Default: 80
  53        comments: Whether or not to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  54            Default: True
  55    """
  56
  57    TRANSFORMS = {
  58        exp.DateAdd: lambda self, e: self.func(
  59            "DATE_ADD", e.this, e.expression, exp.Literal.string(e.text("unit"))
  60        ),
  61        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  62        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  63        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  64        exp.CheckColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHECK ({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
  65        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  66        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  67        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda self, e: "COPY GRANTS",
  68        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  69        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  70        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  71        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  72        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  73        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda self, e: "EXTERNAL",
  74        exp.HeapProperty: lambda self, e: "HEAP",
  75        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  76        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  77        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
  78        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  79        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  80        exp.LogProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
  81        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda self, e: "MATERIALIZED",
  82        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda self, e: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
  83        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  84        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
  85        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
  86        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  88        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  92        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.SetProperty: lambda self, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
  94        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
  95        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
  96        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda self, e: e.name,
  97        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda self, e: f"TEMPORARY",
  98        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
  99        exp.TransientProperty: lambda self, e: "TRANSIENT",
 100        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 101        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 102        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"UPPERCASE",
 103        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 104        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda self, e: "VOLATILE",
 105        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106    }
 107
 108    # Whether the base comes first
 109    LOG_BASE_FIRST = True
 110
 111    # Whether or not null ordering is supported in order by
 112    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED = True
 113
 114    # Whether or not locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 115    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 116
 117    # Always do union distinct or union all
 118    EXPLICIT_UNION = False
 119
 120    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 121    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 122
 123    # Whether or not create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 124    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 125
 126    # Whether or not MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 127    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 128
 129    # Whether or not the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 130    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 131
 132    # Whether or not the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 133    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 134
 135    # Whether or not the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 136    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 137
 138    # Whether or not to treat the number in TABLESAMPLE (50) as a percentage
 139    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT = False
 140
 141    # Whether or not limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 142    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 143
 144    # Whether or not limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 145    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 146
 147    # Whether or not a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 148    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 149
 150    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 151    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 152
 153    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 154    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 155
 156    # Whether or not join hints should be generated
 157    JOIN_HINTS = True
 158
 159    # Whether or not table hints should be generated
 160    TABLE_HINTS = True
 161
 162    # Whether or not query hints should be generated
 163    QUERY_HINTS = True
 164
 165    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 166    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 167
 168    # Whether or not comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 169    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 170
 171    # Whether or not to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 172    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 173
 174    # Whether or not to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 175    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 176
 177    # Whether or not to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 178    RETURNING_END = True
 179
 180    # Whether or not to generate the (+) suffix for columns used in old-style join conditions
 181    COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED = False
 182
 183    # Whether or not to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 184    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 185
 186    # Whether or not TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 187    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 188
 189    # Whether or not the NVL2 function is supported
 190    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 191
 192    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 193    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 194
 195    # Whether or not VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 196    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 197    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 198    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 199
 200    # Whether or not the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 201    ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 202
 203    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 204    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 205
 206    # Whether or not FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 207    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 208
 209    # Whether or not JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 210    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 211
 212    # Whether or not session variables / parameters are supported, e.g. @x in T-SQL
 213    SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS = True
 214
 215    # Whether or not to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 216    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 217
 218    # Whether or not CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 219    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 220
 221    # Whether or not parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 222    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 223
 224    # Whether or not COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 225    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 226
 227    # Whether or not data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 228    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 229
 230    # Whether or not conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 231    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 232
 233    # Whether or not the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 234    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 235
 236    # Whether the behavior of a / b depends on the types of a and b.
 237    # False means a / b is always float division.
 238    # True means a / b is integer division if both a and b are integers.
 239    TYPED_DIVISION = False
 240
 241    # False means 1 / 0 throws an error.
 242    # True means 1 / 0 returns null.
 243    SAFE_DIVISION = False
 244
 245    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 246        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 247        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 248        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 249        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 250        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 251        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 252        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 253        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 254        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 255    }
 256
 257    STAR_MAPPING = {
 258        "except": "EXCEPT",
 259        "replace": "REPLACE",
 260    }
 261
 262    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 263        "microseconds": "microsecond",
 264        "seconds": "second",
 265        "minutes": "minute",
 266        "hours": "hour",
 267        "days": "day",
 268        "weeks": "week",
 269        "months": "month",
 270        "quarters": "quarter",
 271        "years": "year",
 272    }
 273
 274    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 275
 276    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 277
 278    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 279
 280    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 281        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 282        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 283        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 284        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 285        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 286        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 287        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 288        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 289        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 290        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 291        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 292        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 293        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 294        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 295        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 296        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 297        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 298        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 299        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 300        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 301        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 302        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 303        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 304        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 305        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 306        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 307        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 308        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 309        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 310        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 311        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 312        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 313        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 314        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 315        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 316        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 317        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 318        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 319        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 320        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 321        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 322        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 323        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 324        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 325        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 326        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 327        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 328        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 329        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 330        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 331        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 332        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 333        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 334        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 335        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 336        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 337        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 338        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 339        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 340        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 341        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 342        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 343        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 344        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 345    }
 346
 347    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 348    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 349
 350    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 351    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 352        exp.Create,
 353        exp.Delete,
 354        exp.Drop,
 355        exp.From,
 356        exp.Insert,
 357        exp.Join,
 358        exp.Select,
 359        exp.Update,
 360        exp.Where,
 361        exp.With,
 362    )
 363
 364    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 365    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 366        exp.Binary,
 367        exp.Union,
 368    )
 369
 370    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 371    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 372        exp.Column,
 373        exp.Literal,
 374        exp.Neg,
 375        exp.Paren,
 376    )
 377
 378    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 379    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 380
 381    KEY_VALUE_DEFINITONS = (exp.Bracket, exp.EQ, exp.PropertyEQ, exp.Slice)
 382
 383    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 384
 385    # Autofilled
 386    INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 387    INVERSE_TIME_TRIE: t.Dict = {}
 388    INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES: t.Dict[str, str] = {}
 389    INDEX_OFFSET = 0
 390    UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY = False
 391    ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE = False
 392    IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT = False
 393    STRICT_STRING_CONCAT = False
 394    NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS: bool | str = "upper"
 395    NULL_ORDERING = "nulls_are_small"
 396
 397    can_identify: t.Callable[[str, str | bool], bool]
 398
 399    # Delimiters for quotes, identifiers and the corresponding escape characters
 400    QUOTE_START = "'"
 401    QUOTE_END = "'"
 402    IDENTIFIER_START = '"'
 403    IDENTIFIER_END = '"'
 404    TOKENIZER_CLASS = Tokenizer
 405
 406    # Delimiters for bit, hex, byte and raw literals
 407    BIT_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 408    BIT_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 409    HEX_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 410    HEX_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 411    BYTE_START: t.Optional[str] = None
 412    BYTE_END: t.Optional[str] = None
 413
 414    __slots__ = (
 415        "pretty",
 416        "identify",
 417        "normalize",
 418        "pad",
 419        "_indent",
 420        "normalize_functions",
 421        "unsupported_level",
 422        "max_unsupported",
 423        "leading_comma",
 424        "max_text_width",
 425        "comments",
 426        "unsupported_messages",
 427        "_escaped_quote_end",
 428        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 429    )
 430
 431    def __init__(
 432        self,
 433        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 434        identify: str | bool = False,
 435        normalize: bool = False,
 436        pad: int = 2,
 437        indent: int = 2,
 438        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 439        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 440        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 441        leading_comma: bool = False,
 442        max_text_width: int = 80,
 443        comments: bool = True,
 444    ):
 445        import sqlglot
 446
 447        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 448        self.identify = identify
 449        self.normalize = normalize
 450        self.pad = pad
 451        self._indent = indent
 452        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 453        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 454        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 455        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 456        self.comments = comments
 457
 458        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 459        self.normalize_functions = (
 460            self.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 461        )
 462
 463        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 464        self._escaped_quote_end: str = self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.QUOTE_END
 465        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 466            self.TOKENIZER_CLASS.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.IDENTIFIER_END
 467        )
 468
 469    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 470        """
 471        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 472
 473        Args:
 474            expression: The syntax tree.
 475            copy: Whether or not to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 476                it is safer to copy.
 477
 478        Returns:
 479            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 480        """
 481        if copy:
 482            expression = expression.copy()
 483
 484        # Some dialects only support CTEs at the top level expression for certain expression
 485        # types, so we need to bubble up nested CTEs to that level in order to produce a
 486        # syntactically valid expression. This transformation happens here to minimize code
 487        # duplication, since many expressions support CTEs.
 488        if (
 489            not expression.parent
 490            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 491            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 492        ):
 493            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 494
 495            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 496
 497        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 498            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 499
 500            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 501
 502        self.unsupported_messages = []
 503        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 504
 505        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 506            return sql
 507
 508        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 509            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 510                logger.warning(msg)
 511        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 512            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 513
 514        if self.pretty:
 515            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 516        return sql
 517
 518    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 519        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 520            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 521        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 522
 523    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 524        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 525
 526    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 527        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 528
 529    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 530        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 531        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 532        return comment
 533
 534    def maybe_comment(
 535        self,
 536        sql: str,
 537        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 538        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 539    ) -> str:
 540        comments = (
 541            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 542            if self.comments
 543            else None
 544        )
 545
 546        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 547            return sql
 548
 549        comments_sql = " ".join(
 550            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 551        )
 552
 553        if not comments_sql:
 554            return sql
 555
 556        if isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 557            return (
 558                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 559                if sql[0].isspace()
 560                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 561            )
 562
 563        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 564
 565    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 566        this_sql = self.indent(
 567            self.sql(expression)
 568            if isinstance(expression, (exp.Select, exp.Union))
 569            else self.sql(expression, "this"),
 570            level=1,
 571            pad=0,
 572        )
 573        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 574
 575    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 576        original = self.identify
 577        self.identify = False
 578        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 579        self.identify = original
 580        return result
 581
 582    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 583        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 584            return name.upper()
 585        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 586            return name.lower()
 587        return name
 588
 589    def indent(
 590        self,
 591        sql: str,
 592        level: int = 0,
 593        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 594        skip_first: bool = False,
 595        skip_last: bool = False,
 596    ) -> str:
 597        if not self.pretty:
 598            return sql
 599
 600        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 601        lines = sql.split("\n")
 602
 603        return "\n".join(
 604            line
 605            if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 606            else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 607            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 608        )
 609
 610    def sql(
 611        self,
 612        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 613        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 614        comment: bool = True,
 615    ) -> str:
 616        if not expression:
 617            return ""
 618
 619        if isinstance(expression, str):
 620            return expression
 621
 622        if key:
 623            value = expression.args.get(key)
 624            if value:
 625                return self.sql(value)
 626            return ""
 627
 628        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 629
 630        if callable(transform):
 631            sql = transform(self, expression)
 632        elif transform:
 633            sql = transform
 634        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 635            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 636
 637            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 638                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 639            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 640                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 641            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 642                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 643            else:
 644                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 645        else:
 646            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 647
 648        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 649
 650    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 651        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 652        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 653        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 654
 655    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 656        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 657        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 658        options = expression.args.get("options")
 659        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 660        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 661        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 662        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 663        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 664
 665    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 666        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 667            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 668        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 669        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 670
 671    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 672        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 673
 674        if join_mark and not self.COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS_SUPPORTED:
 675            join_mark = ""
 676            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 677
 678        column = ".".join(
 679            self.sql(part)
 680            for part in (
 681                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 682                expression.args.get("db"),
 683                expression.args.get("table"),
 684                expression.args.get("this"),
 685            )
 686            if part
 687        )
 688
 689        return f"{column}{join_mark}"
 690
 691    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 692        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 693        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 694        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 695        return f"{position}{this}"
 696
 697    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 698        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 699        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 700        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 701        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 702        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 703        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 704        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 705        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 706
 707        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 708            kind = ""
 709
 710        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 711
 712    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 713        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 714        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 715        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 716
 717    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 718        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 719        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 720            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 721        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 722            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 723        else:
 724            persisted = ""
 725        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 726
 727    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 728        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 729
 730    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 731        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 732            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 733        else:
 734            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 735
 736        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 737
 738    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 739        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 740    ) -> str:
 741        this = ""
 742        if expression.this is not None:
 743            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 744            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 745
 746        start = expression.args.get("start")
 747        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 748        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 749        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 750        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 751        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 752        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 753        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 754        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 755        cycle_sql = ""
 756
 757        if cycle is not None:
 758            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 759            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 760
 761        sequence_opts = ""
 762        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 763            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 764            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 765
 766        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 767        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 768
 769        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 770
 771    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 772        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 773    ) -> str:
 774        start = "START" if expression.args["start"] else "END"
 775        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 776        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 777
 778    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 779        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 780    ) -> str:
 781        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 782
 783    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 784        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 785
 786    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 787        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 788        if desc is not None:
 789            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 790        return f"PRIMARY KEY"
 791
 792    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 793        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 794        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 795        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 796        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 797        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}"
 798
 799    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 800        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 801
 802    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
 804        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 805        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 806
 807        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 808
 809        properties_sql = ""
 810        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 811            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 812        ):
 813            properties_sql = self.sql(
 814                exp.Properties(
 815                    expressions=[
 816                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 817                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 818                    ]
 819                )
 820            )
 821
 822        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 823        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 824
 825        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 826        if expression_sql:
 827            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 828
 829            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 830                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 831                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 832                        exp.Properties(
 833                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 834                        ),
 835                        wrapped=False,
 836                    )
 837                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
 838                else:
 839                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
 840
 841        postindex_props_sql = ""
 842        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
 843            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
 844                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
 845                wrapped=False,
 846                prefix=" ",
 847            )
 848
 849        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
 850        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
 851        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
 852
 853        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
 854        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
 855
 856        postcreate_props_sql = ""
 857        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
 858            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
 859                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
 860                sep=" ",
 861                prefix=" ",
 862                wrapped=False,
 863            )
 864
 865        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
 866
 867        postexpression_props_sql = ""
 868        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
 869            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
 870                exp.Properties(
 871                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
 872                ),
 873                sep=" ",
 874                prefix=" ",
 875                wrapped=False,
 876            )
 877
 878        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 879        no_schema_binding = (
 880            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
 881        )
 882
 883        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
 884        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
 885
 886        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
 887        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
 888
 889    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
 890        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 891        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
 892        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
 893        this = f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
 894        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
 895
 896        if when:
 897            kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 898            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 899            return f"{this} {when} ({kind} => {expr})"
 900
 901        return this
 902
 903    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
 904        return f"DESCRIBE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 905
 906    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
 907        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
 908        if with_:
 909            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 910        return sql
 911
 912    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
 913        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 914        recursive = (
 915            "RECURSIVE "
 916            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
 917            else ""
 918        )
 919
 920        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
 921
 922    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
 923        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
 924        return f"{alias} AS {self.wrap(expression)}"
 925
 926    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
 927        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
 928        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
 929        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
 930
 931        if not alias and not self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
 932            alias = "_t"
 933
 934        return f"{alias}{columns}"
 935
 936    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
 937        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 938        if self.BIT_START:
 939            return f"{self.BIT_START}{this}{self.BIT_END}"
 940        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
 941
 942    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
 943        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 944        if self.HEX_START:
 945            return f"{self.HEX_START}{this}{self.HEX_END}"
 946        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
 947
 948    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
 949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 950        if self.BYTE_START:
 951            return f"{self.BYTE_START}{this}{self.BYTE_END}"
 952        return this
 953
 954    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
 955        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"))
 956        return f"{self.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.QUOTE_END}"
 957
 958    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
 959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 960        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 961        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
 962        return f"{this}{specifier}"
 963
 964    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
 965        type_value = expression.this
 966
 967        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
 968            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 969        else:
 970            type_sql = (
 971                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
 972                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
 973                else type_value
 974            )
 975
 976        nested = ""
 977        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
 978        values = ""
 979
 980        if interior:
 981            if expression.args.get("nested"):
 982                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
 983                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
 984                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
 985                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
 986                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
 987            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
 988                nested = f" {interior}"
 989            else:
 990                nested = f"({interior})"
 991
 992        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
 993        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
 994            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
 995            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
 996        ):
 997            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
 998
 999        return type_sql
1000
1001    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1002        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1003        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1004        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1005        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1006
1007    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1008        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1009        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1010        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1011        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1012        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1013        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1014        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1015        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1016        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1017        if self.RETURNING_END:
1018            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1019        else:
1020            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1021        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1022
1023    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1024        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1025        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1026        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1027        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1028        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1029        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1030        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1031        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1032        return (
1033            f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1034        )
1035
1036    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1037        return self.prepend_ctes(
1038            expression,
1039            self.set_operation(expression, self.except_op(expression)),
1040        )
1041
1042    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1043        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1044
1045    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1046        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1047        direction = f" {direction.upper()}" if direction else ""
1048        count = expression.args.get("count")
1049        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1050        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1051            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1052        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1053        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1054
1055    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1056        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1057            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1058            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1059            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1060
1061        agg = expression.this
1062        agg_arg = agg.this
1063        cond = expression.expression.this
1064        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1065        return self.sql(agg)
1066
1067    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1068        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1069            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1070            return ""
1071
1072        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1073
1074    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1075        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1076        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1077        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1078        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1079        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1080        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1081        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1082        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1083        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1084        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1085        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1086        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1087        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1088        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1089        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1090        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{using}{columns}{partition_by}{where}"
1091
1092    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1093        text = expression.name
1094        lower = text.lower()
1095        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1096        text = text.replace(self.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1097        if (
1098            expression.quoted
1099            or self.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1100            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1101            or (not self.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1102        ):
1103            text = f"{self.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1104        return text
1105
1106    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1107        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1108        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1109        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1110        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1111        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1112
1113    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1114        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1115        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1116
1117    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1118        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1119
1120    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1121        root_properties = []
1122        with_properties = []
1123
1124        for p in expression.expressions:
1125            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1126            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1127                with_properties.append(p)
1128            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1129                root_properties.append(p)
1130
1131        return self.root_properties(
1132            exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties)
1133        ) + self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1134
1135    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1136        if properties.expressions:
1137            return self.sep() + self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1138        return ""
1139
1140    def properties(
1141        self,
1142        properties: exp.Properties,
1143        prefix: str = "",
1144        sep: str = ", ",
1145        suffix: str = "",
1146        wrapped: bool = True,
1147    ) -> str:
1148        if properties.expressions:
1149            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1150            if expressions:
1151                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1152                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix and prefix != ' ' else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1153        return ""
1154
1155    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1156        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg("WITH"))
1157
1158    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1159        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1160        for p in properties.expressions:
1161            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1162            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1163                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1164            else:
1165                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1166
1167        return properties_locs
1168
1169    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1170        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1171            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1172        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1173
1174    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1175        property_cls = expression.__class__
1176        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1177            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1178
1179        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1180        if not property_name:
1181            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1182
1183        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1184
1185    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1186        options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1187        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1188        return f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1189
1190    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1191        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1192        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1193        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1194
1195    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1196        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1197        local = expression.args.get("local")
1198        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1199        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1200        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1201        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1202        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1203
1204    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1205        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1206        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1207        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1208
1209    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1210        if expression.args.get("default"):
1211            property = "DEFAULT"
1212        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1213            property = "ON"
1214        else:
1215            property = "OFF"
1216        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1217
1218    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1219        if expression.args.get("no"):
1220            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1221        if expression.args.get("default"):
1222            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1223
1224        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1225        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1226
1227    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1228        default = expression.args.get("default")
1229        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1230        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1231        if default or minimum or maximum:
1232            if default:
1233                prop = "DEFAULT"
1234            elif minimum:
1235                prop = "MINIMUM"
1236            else:
1237                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1238            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1239        units = expression.args.get("units")
1240        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1241        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1242
1243    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1244        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1245        always = expression.args.get("always")
1246        default = expression.args.get("default")
1247        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1248        never = expression.args.get("never")
1249
1250        if autotemp is not None:
1251            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1252        elif always:
1253            prop = "ALWAYS"
1254        elif default:
1255            prop = "DEFAULT"
1256        elif manual:
1257            prop = "MANUAL"
1258        elif never:
1259            prop = "NEVER"
1260        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1261
1262    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1263        no = expression.args.get("no")
1264        no = " NO" if no else ""
1265        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1266        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1267
1268        for_ = ""
1269        if expression.args.get("for_all"):
1270            for_ = " FOR ALL"
1271        elif expression.args.get("for_insert"):
1272            for_ = " FOR INSERT"
1273        elif expression.args.get("for_none"):
1274            for_ = " FOR NONE"
1275        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{for_}"
1276
1277    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1278        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1279            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1280        if expression.this:
1281            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1282            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1283            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1284
1285        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1286        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1287        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1288
1289    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1290        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1291
1292        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1293        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1294            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1295        else:
1296            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1297
1298        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1299
1300    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1301        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1302        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1303        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1304        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1305        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1306        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1307        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1308
1309    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1310        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1311        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1312        statistics_sql = ""
1313        if statistics is not None:
1314            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1315        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1316
1317    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1318        sql = "WITH(SYSTEM_VERSIONING=ON"
1319
1320        if expression.this:
1321            history_table = self.sql(expression, "this")
1322            sql = f"{sql}(HISTORY_TABLE={history_table}"
1323
1324            if expression.expression:
1325                data_consistency_check = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1326                sql = f"{sql}, DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency_check}"
1327
1328            sql = f"{sql})"
1329
1330        return f"{sql})"
1331
1332    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1333        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1334
1335        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1336            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1337        else:
1338            this = " OVERWRITE TABLE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1339
1340        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1341        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1342        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1343
1344        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1345
1346        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1347        partition_sql = (
1348            f" {self.sql(expression, 'partition')}" if expression.args.get("partition") else ""
1349        )
1350        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1351        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1352        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1353        conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1354        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1355        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1356
1357        if self.RETURNING_END:
1358            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{conflict}{returning}"
1359        else:
1360            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{conflict}"
1361
1362        sql = f"INSERT{alternative}{ignore}{this}{by_name}{exists}{partition_sql}{where}{expression_sql}"
1363        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1364
1365    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1366        return self.prepend_ctes(
1367            expression,
1368            self.set_operation(expression, self.intersect_op(expression)),
1369        )
1370
1371    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1372        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1373
1374    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1375        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1376
1377    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1378        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1379        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1380        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1381        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1382        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1383
1384    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1385        return expression.name.upper()
1386
1387    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1388        return expression.name.upper()
1389
1390    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1391        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1392        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1393        if constraint:
1394            constraint = f"ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}"
1395        key = self.expressions(expression, key="key", flat=True)
1396        do = "" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else " DO "
1397        nothing = "NOTHING" if expression.args.get("nothing") else ""
1398        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1399        set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1400        if expressions:
1401            expressions = f"UPDATE {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1402        return f"{self.seg(conflict)} {constraint}{key}{do}{nothing}{expressions}"
1403
1404    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1405        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1406
1407    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1408        fields = expression.args.get("fields")
1409        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1410        escaped = expression.args.get("escaped")
1411        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1412        items = expression.args.get("collection_items")
1413        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1414        keys = expression.args.get("map_keys")
1415        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1416        lines = expression.args.get("lines")
1417        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1418        null = expression.args.get("null")
1419        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1420        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1421
1422    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1423        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1424
1425    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1426        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1427        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1428        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1429        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1430
1431    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1432        table = ".".join(
1433            self.sql(part)
1434            for part in (
1435                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1436                expression.args.get("db"),
1437                expression.args.get("this"),
1438            )
1439            if part is not None
1440        )
1441
1442        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1443        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1444        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1445        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1446        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1447        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1448        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1449        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1450        joins = self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", skip_first=True)
1451        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1452
1453        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1454        if file_format:
1455            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1456            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1457            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1458
1459        index = self.sql(expression, "index")
1460        index = f" AT {index}" if index else ""
1461
1462        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1463        if ordinality:
1464            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1465            alias = ""
1466
1467        return f"{table}{version}{file_format}{alias}{index}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1468
1469    def tablesample_sql(
1470        self, expression: exp.TableSample, seed_prefix: str = "SEED", sep=" AS "
1471    ) -> str:
1472        if self.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1473            table = expression.this.copy()
1474            table.set("alias", None)
1475            this = self.sql(table)
1476            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1477        else:
1478            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1479            alias = ""
1480
1481        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1482        method = f"{method.upper()} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1483        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1484        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1485        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1486        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1487        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1488        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1489        percent = f"{percent} PERCENT" if percent else ""
1490        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1491        rows = f"{rows} ROWS" if rows else ""
1492
1493        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1494        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1495            size = f"{size} PERCENT"
1496
1497        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1498        seed = f" {seed_prefix} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1499        kind = expression.args.get("kind", "TABLESAMPLE")
1500
1501        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{rows}{size}"
1502        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1503            expr = f"({expr})"
1504
1505        return f"{this} {kind} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1506
1507    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1508        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1509
1510        if expression.this:
1511            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1512            if not expressions:
1513                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1514
1515            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1516            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1517            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1518            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1519            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1520
1521        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1522        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1523        unpivot = expression.args.get("unpivot")
1524        direction = "UNPIVOT" if unpivot else "PIVOT"
1525        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1526        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1527        if include_nulls is not None:
1528            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1529        else:
1530            nulls = ""
1531        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1532
1533    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1534        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1535        kind = expression.text("kind")
1536        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1537        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1538
1539    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1540        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1541
1542    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1543        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1544        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1545        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1546        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1547        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1548        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1549        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1550        if self.RETURNING_END:
1551            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1552        else:
1553            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1554        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1555        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1556
1557    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values) -> str:
1558        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1559        if self.VALUES_AS_TABLE or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1560            args = self.expressions(expression)
1561            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1562            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1563            values = (
1564                f"({values})"
1565                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1566                else values
1567            )
1568            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1569
1570        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1571        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1572        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1573
1574        selects: t.List[exp.Subqueryable] = []
1575
1576        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1577            row = tup.expressions
1578
1579            if i == 0 and column_names:
1580                row = [
1581                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1582                ]
1583
1584            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1585
1586        if self.pretty:
1587            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1588            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1589            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1590            subqueryable = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1591            return self.subquery_sql(
1592                subqueryable.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False)
1593            )
1594
1595        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1596        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1597        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1598
1599    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1600        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1601
1602    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1603        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1604        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1605        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1606
1607    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1608        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1609
1610    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1611        group_by = self.op_expressions("GROUP BY", expression)
1612
1613        if expression.args.get("all"):
1614            return f"{group_by} ALL"
1615
1616        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1617        grouping_sets = (
1618            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1619        )
1620
1621        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1622        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1623            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1624        else:
1625            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1626            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1627
1628        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1629        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1630            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1631        else:
1632            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1633            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1634
1635        groupings = csv(
1636            grouping_sets,
1637            cube_sql,
1638            rollup_sql,
1639            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1640            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1641        )
1642
1643        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1644            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1645
1646        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1647
1648    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1649        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1650        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1651
1652    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1653        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1654        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1655        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1656        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY {connect}")
1657        return start + connect
1658
1659    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1660        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1661
1662    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1663        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1664            side = None
1665        else:
1666            side = expression.side
1667
1668        op_sql = " ".join(
1669            op
1670            for op in (
1671                expression.method,
1672                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1673                side,
1674                expression.kind,
1675                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1676            )
1677            if op
1678        )
1679        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1680        using = expression.args.get("using")
1681
1682        if not on_sql and using:
1683            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1684
1685        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
1686
1687        if on_sql:
1688            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1689            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1690            if using:
1691                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1692            else:
1693                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1694        elif not op_sql:
1695            return f", {this_sql}"
1696
1697        op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1698        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{on_sql}"
1699
1700    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1701        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1702        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
1703        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1704
1705    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
1706        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1707
1708        if expression.args.get("view"):
1709            alias = expression.args["alias"]
1710            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
1711            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
1712            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
1713            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
1714            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
1715
1716        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1717        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1718        return f"LATERAL {this}{alias}"
1719
1720    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
1721        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1722
1723        args = [
1724            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
1725            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
1726            if e
1727        ]
1728
1729        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
1730        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if any(top and not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
1731        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}"
1732
1733    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
1734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1735        expression = expression.expression
1736        expression = (
1737            self._simplify_unless_literal(expression) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else expression
1738        )
1739        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(expression)}"
1740
1741    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
1742        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1743        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
1744        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1745        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1746        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
1747        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
1748        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
1749        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
1750
1751    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
1752        expressions = (
1753            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
1754        )
1755        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
1756        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
1757
1758    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
1759        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1760
1761    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
1762        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
1763            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
1764            return ""
1765
1766        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
1767        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1768        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
1769        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
1770
1771        if wait is not None:
1772            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
1773                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
1774            else:
1775                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
1776
1777        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
1778
1779    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
1780        text = expression.this or ""
1781        if expression.is_string:
1782            text = f"{self.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.QUOTE_END}"
1783        return text
1784
1785    def escape_str(self, text: str) -> str:
1786        text = text.replace(self.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end)
1787        if self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES:
1788            text = "".join(self.INVERSE_ESCAPE_SEQUENCES.get(ch, ch) for ch in text)
1789        elif self.pretty:
1790            text = text.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
1791        return text
1792
1793    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
1794        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1795        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
1796        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
1797        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1798        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1799        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1800        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1801        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1802        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
1803        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
1804        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
1805
1806    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
1807        return "NULL"
1808
1809    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
1810        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
1811
1812    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
1813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1814        this = f"{this} " if this else this
1815        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
1816
1817    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
1818        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
1819
1820    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
1821        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
1822
1823    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
1824        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
1825
1826    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
1827        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1828        asc = not desc
1829
1830        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
1831        nulls_last = not nulls_first
1832        nulls_are_large = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
1833        nulls_are_small = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
1834        nulls_are_last = self.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
1835
1836        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1837
1838        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
1839        nulls_sort_change = ""
1840        if nulls_first and (
1841            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
1842        ):
1843            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
1844        elif (
1845            nulls_last
1846            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
1847            and not nulls_are_last
1848        ):
1849            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
1850
1851        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
1852        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
1853            null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
1854            this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
1855            nulls_sort_change = ""
1856
1857        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}"
1858
1859    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
1860        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
1861        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1862        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
1863        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
1864        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
1865        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
1866        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
1867        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
1868        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1869        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
1870        definition_sqls = [
1871            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
1872            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
1873        ]
1874        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
1875        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
1876        body = "".join(
1877            (
1878                partition,
1879                order,
1880                measures,
1881                rows,
1882                after,
1883                pattern,
1884                define,
1885            )
1886        )
1887        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1888        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
1889        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
1890
1891    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
1892        limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit] = expression.args.get("limit")
1893
1894        # If the limit is generated as TOP, we need to ensure it's not generated twice
1895        with_offset_limit_modifiers = not isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) or not self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1896
1897        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
1898            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
1899        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
1900            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
1901
1902        fetch = isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch)
1903
1904        offset_limit_modifiers = (
1905            self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, fetch, limit)
1906            if with_offset_limit_modifiers
1907            else []
1908        )
1909
1910        return csv(
1911            *sqls,
1912            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
1913            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
1914            self.sql(expression, "match"),
1915            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
1916            self.sql(expression, "where"),
1917            self.sql(expression, "group"),
1918            self.sql(expression, "having"),
1919            *self.after_having_modifiers(expression),
1920            self.sql(expression, "order"),
1921            *offset_limit_modifiers,
1922            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
1923            sep="",
1924        )
1925
1926    def offset_limit_modifiers(
1927        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
1928    ) -> t.List[str]:
1929        return [
1930            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
1931            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
1932        ]
1933
1934    def after_having_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1935        return [
1936            self.sql(expression, "qualify"),
1937            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(expression, key="windows", flat=True)
1938            if expression.args.get("windows")
1939            else "",
1940            self.sql(expression, "distribute"),
1941            self.sql(expression, "sort"),
1942            self.sql(expression, "cluster"),
1943        ]
1944
1945    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
1946        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
1947        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
1948        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
1949
1950    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
1951        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1952        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
1953        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
1954        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind").upper()
1955        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1956        top = (
1957            self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
1958            if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP
1959            else ""
1960        )
1961
1962        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
1963
1964        if kind:
1965            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
1966                kind = f" AS {kind}"
1967            else:
1968                if kind == "STRUCT":
1969                    expressions = self.expressions(
1970                        sqls=[
1971                            self.sql(
1972                                exp.Struct(
1973                                    expressions=[
1974                                        exp.column(e.output_name).eq(
1975                                            e.this if isinstance(e, exp.Alias) else e
1976                                        )
1977                                        for e in expression.expressions
1978                                    ]
1979                                )
1980                            )
1981                        ]
1982                    )
1983                kind = ""
1984
1985        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
1986        sql = self.query_modifiers(
1987            expression,
1988            f"SELECT{top}{hint}{distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
1989            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
1990            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
1991        )
1992        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1993
1994    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
1995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1996        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
1997        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
1998
1999    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2000        if expression.expressions:
2001            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2002        return ""
2003
2004    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2005        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2006        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['except'])} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2007        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2008        replace = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_MAPPING['replace'])} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2009        return f"*{except_}{replace}"
2010
2011    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2013        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}" if self.SUPPORTS_PARAMETERS else this
2014
2015    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2017        kind = expression.text("kind")
2018        if kind:
2019            kind = f"{kind}."
2020        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2021
2022    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2023        return f":{expression.name}" if expression.name else "?"
2024
2025    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2026        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2027        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2028
2029        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2030        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2031
2032        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2033        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2034
2035    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2036        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2037        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2038
2039    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2040        return self.prepend_ctes(
2041            expression,
2042            self.set_operation(expression, self.union_op(expression)),
2043        )
2044
2045    def union_op(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2046        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_UNION else ""
2047        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2048        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2049        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2050
2051    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2052        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2053
2054        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2055        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2056
2057        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2058            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2059                alias.append("columns", offset)
2060
2061        if alias and self.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2062            columns = alias.columns
2063            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2064        else:
2065            alias = self.sql(alias)
2066
2067        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2068        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2069            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2070        else:
2071            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2072                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2073            elif offset:
2074                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2075            else:
2076                suffix = alias
2077
2078        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2079
2080    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2081        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2082        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2083
2084    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2085        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2086        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2087        order = expression.args.get("order")
2088        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2089        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2090        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2091        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2092
2093        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2094
2095        first = expression.args.get("first")
2096        if first is None:
2097            first = ""
2098        else:
2099            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2100
2101        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2102            return f"{this} {alias}"
2103
2104        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2105        return f"{this} ({args})"
2106
2107    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2108        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2109        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2110
2111    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2112        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2113        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2114        end = (
2115            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2116            or "CURRENT ROW"
2117        )
2118        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2119
2120    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2121        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2122        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2123        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2124
2125    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2126        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2127        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2128        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2129        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2130
2131    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2132        expressions = apply_index_offset(expression.this, expression.expressions, self.INDEX_OFFSET)
2133        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2134
2135        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2136
2137    def safebracket_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeBracket) -> str:
2138        return self.bracket_sql(expression)
2139
2140    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2141        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2142
2143    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2144        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2145        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Subqueryable):
2146            this = self.wrap(this)
2147        return f"ANY {this}"
2148
2149    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2150        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2151
2152    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2154        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2155
2156        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2157            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2158            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2159
2160        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2161
2162        if default:
2163            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2164
2165        statements.append("END")
2166
2167        if self.pretty and self.text_width(statements) > self.max_text_width:
2168            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2169
2170        return " ".join(statements)
2171
2172    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2174        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2175        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2176
2177    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2178        order = expression.args.get("order")
2179        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2180        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2181
2182    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2183        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2184        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2185        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2186
2187    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2188        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2189
2190        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2191            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2192        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2193            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2194        else:
2195            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2196
2197    def safeconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeConcat) -> str:
2198        expressions = expression.expressions
2199        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2200            expressions = [exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expressions]
2201        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2202
2203    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2204        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2205        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2206
2207    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2208        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2209        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2210        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2211        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2212        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2213        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2214        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2215        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2216
2217    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2218        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2219        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2220        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2221        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2222
2223    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2224        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2225
2226    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2227        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2228        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2229        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2230
2231    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2232        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}: {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2233
2234    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2235        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2236
2237    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject) -> str:
2238        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2239        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2240        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2241        if unique_keys is not None:
2242            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2243        else:
2244            unique_keys = ""
2245        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2246        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2247        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2248        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2249        return self.func(
2250            "JSON_OBJECT",
2251            *expression.expressions,
2252            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2253        )
2254
2255    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2256        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2257        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2258        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2259        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2260        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2261        return self.func(
2262            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2263        )
2264
2265    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2267        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2268        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2269        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2270        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2271        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2272        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2273        return self.func(
2274            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2275            this,
2276            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2277        )
2278
2279    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2280        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2281        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2282        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2283
2284        if nested_schema:
2285            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2286
2287        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2288        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2289        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2290        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2291
2292    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2293        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2294
2295    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2297        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2298        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2299        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2300        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2301        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2302        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2303        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2304        return self.func(
2305            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2306        )
2307
2308    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2309        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2310        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2311        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2312        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2313        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2314        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2315
2316    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2317        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2318        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2319        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2320        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2321        with_ = (
2322            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2323            if expressions
2324            else ""
2325        )
2326        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2327
2328    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2329        query = expression.args.get("query")
2330        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2331        field = expression.args.get("field")
2332        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2333
2334        if query:
2335            in_sql = self.wrap(query)
2336        elif unnest:
2337            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2338        elif field:
2339            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2340        else:
2341            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2342
2343        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2344
2345    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2346        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2347
2348    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2349        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2350        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2351            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit.lower(), unit)
2352        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2353
2354        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2355            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2356            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2357
2358        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2359        if this:
2360            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2361            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2362
2363        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2364
2365    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2366        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2367
2368    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2369        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2370        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2371        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2372        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2373        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2374        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2375
2376    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2377        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)
2378
2379    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2380        if isinstance(expression.unnest(), exp.Select):
2381            sql = self.wrap(expression)
2382        else:
2383            sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2384            sql = f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2385
2386        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2387
2388    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2389        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2390        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2391        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2392        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2393
2394    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2395        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2396
2397    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2398        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2399        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2400        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2401
2402    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2403        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2404
2405    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2406        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2407        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2408        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2409
2410    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2411        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2412
2413    def and_sql(self, expression: exp.And) -> str:
2414        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND")
2415
2416    def xor_sql(self, expression: exp.Xor) -> str:
2417        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR")
2418
2419    def connector_sql(self, expression: exp.Connector, op: str) -> str:
2420        if not self.pretty:
2421            return self.binary(expression, op)
2422
2423        sqls = tuple(
2424            self.maybe_comment(self.sql(e), e, e.parent.comments or []) if i != 1 else self.sql(e)
2425            for i, e in enumerate(expression.flatten(unnest=False))
2426        )
2427
2428        sep = "\n" if self.text_width(sqls) > self.max_text_width else " "
2429        return f"{sep}{op} ".join(sqls)
2430
2431    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2432        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2433
2434    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2435        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2436
2437    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2438        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2439
2440    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2441        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2442
2443    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2444        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2445
2446    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2447        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2448
2449    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2450        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2451        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2452        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2453        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2454        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql})"
2455
2456    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2457        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2458        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2459
2460    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2461        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2462            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2463        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2464
2465    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2466        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this').upper()} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2467
2468    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2469        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2470        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2471        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2472        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2473        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2474
2475    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2476        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2477        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2478        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2479        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2480        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2481        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
2482        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
2483        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
2484        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
2485
2486    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
2487        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
2488        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2489        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
2490        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
2491
2492        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
2493            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
2494
2495        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
2496
2497    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
2498        return "BEGIN"
2499
2500    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
2501        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
2502        if chain is not None:
2503            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
2504
2505        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
2506
2507    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
2508        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
2509        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
2510        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
2511
2512    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
2513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2514
2515        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
2516        if dtype:
2517            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2518            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2519            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2520            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
2521            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
2522
2523        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2524        if default:
2525            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
2526
2527        if not expression.args.get("drop"):
2528            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
2529
2530        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
2531
2532    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
2533        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
2534            # Remove db from tables
2535            expression = expression.transform(
2536                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
2537            )
2538        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2539        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
2540
2541    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2542        actions = expression.args["actions"]
2543
2544        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
2545            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
2546        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
2547            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
2548        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
2549            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2550        else:
2551            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
2552
2553        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
2554        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
2555        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')} {actions}"
2556
2557    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
2558        if self.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
2559            return self.expressions(
2560                expression,
2561                key="actions",
2562                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
2563            )
2564        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
2565
2566    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
2567        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2568        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2569        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
2570
2571    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
2572        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2573        expression_ = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2574        add_constraint = f"ADD CONSTRAINT {this}" if this else "ADD"
2575
2576        enforced = expression.args.get("enforced")
2577        if enforced is not None:
2578            return f"{add_constraint} CHECK ({expression_}){' ENFORCED' if enforced else ''}"
2579
2580        return f"{add_constraint} {expression_}"
2581
2582    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
2583        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2584        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2585
2586        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
2587        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
2588        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
2589
2590    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
2591        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} IGNORE NULLS"
2592
2593    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
2594        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} RESPECT NULLS"
2595
2596    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
2597        return self.sql(
2598            exp.Cast(
2599                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
2600                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
2601            )
2602        )
2603
2604    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
2605        return self.binary(expression, "||")
2606
2607    def safedpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDPipe) -> str:
2608        if self.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT:
2609            return self.func("CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, "text") for e in expression.flatten()))
2610        return self.dpipe_sql(expression)
2611
2612    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
2613        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
2614
2615        if not self.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
2616            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
2617
2618        if self.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
2619            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES) and not r.is_type(
2620                *exp.DataType.FLOAT_TYPES
2621            ):
2622                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
2623
2624        elif not self.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
2625            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
2626                return self.sql(
2627                    exp.cast(
2628                        l / r,
2629                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
2630                    )
2631                )
2632
2633        return self.binary(expression, "/")
2634
2635    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
2636        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
2637
2638    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
2639        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
2640
2641    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
2642        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2643
2644    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
2645        return self.binary(expression, "=")
2646
2647    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
2648        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
2649
2650    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
2651        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
2652
2653    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
2654        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
2655
2656    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
2657        return self.binary(expression, ">")
2658
2659    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
2660        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
2661
2662    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
2663        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
2664
2665    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
2666        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
2667
2668    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
2669        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
2670            return self.sql(
2671                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
2672            )
2673        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
2674
2675    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
2676        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
2677
2678    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
2679        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
2680
2681    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
2682        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
2683
2684    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
2685        return self.binary(expression, "<")
2686
2687    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
2688        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
2689
2690    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
2691        return self.binary(expression, "%")
2692
2693    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
2694        return self.binary(expression, "*")
2695
2696    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
2697        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
2698
2699    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
2700        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
2701
2702    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
2703        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
2704
2705    def or_sql(self, expression: exp.Or) -> str:
2706        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR")
2707
2708    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
2709        return self.binary(expression, ":")
2710
2711    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
2712        return self.binary(expression, "-")
2713
2714    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
2715        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
2716
2717    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
2718        args = list(expression.args.values())
2719        if not self.LOG_BASE_FIRST:
2720            args.reverse()
2721        return self.func("LOG", *args)
2722
2723    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
2724        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2725        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2726        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2727        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2728        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
2729
2730    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
2731        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
2732        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2733
2734    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
2735        args = []
2736
2737        for key in expression.arg_types:
2738            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
2739
2740            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
2741                for value in arg_value:
2742                    args.append(value)
2743            elif arg_value is not None:
2744                args.append(arg_value)
2745
2746        if self.normalize_functions:
2747            name = expression.sql_name()
2748        else:
2749            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
2750
2751        return self.func(name, *args)
2752
2753    def func(
2754        self,
2755        name: str,
2756        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
2757        prefix: str = "(",
2758        suffix: str = ")",
2759    ) -> str:
2760        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
2761
2762    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
2763        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
2764        if self.pretty and self.text_width(arg_sqls) > self.max_text_width:
2765            return self.indent("\n" + f",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2766        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
2767
2768    def text_width(self, args: t.Iterable) -> int:
2769        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args)
2770
2771    def format_time(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.Optional[str]:
2772        return format_time(
2773            self.sql(expression, "format"), self.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING, self.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE
2774        )
2775
2776    def expressions(
2777        self,
2778        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
2779        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
2780        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2781        flat: bool = False,
2782        indent: bool = True,
2783        skip_first: bool = False,
2784        sep: str = ", ",
2785        prefix: str = "",
2786    ) -> str:
2787        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
2788
2789        if not expressions:
2790            return ""
2791
2792        if flat:
2793            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
2794
2795        num_sqls = len(expressions)
2796
2797        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
2798        pad = " " * self.pad
2799        stripped_sep = sep.strip()
2800
2801        result_sqls = []
2802        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
2803            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
2804            if not sql:
2805                continue
2806
2807            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
2808
2809            if self.pretty:
2810                if self.leading_comma:
2811                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else pad}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
2812                else:
2813                    result_sqls.append(
2814                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
2815                    )
2816            else:
2817                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
2818
2819        result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls) if self.pretty else "".join(result_sqls)
2820        return self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first) if indent else result_sql
2821
2822    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2823        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
2824        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
2825        if flat:
2826            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
2827        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
2828
2829    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
2830        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
2831        if not property_name:
2832            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2833        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2834
2835    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.Union, op: str) -> str:
2836        this = self.maybe_comment(self.sql(expression, "this"), comments=expression.comments)
2837        op = self.seg(op)
2838        return self.query_modifiers(
2839            expression, f"{this}{op}{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2840        )
2841
2842    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
2843        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
2844
2845    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
2846        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
2847
2848    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
2849        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2850        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
2851        expressions = (
2852            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
2853        )
2854        return f"{this}{expressions}"
2855
2856    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
2857        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2858        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2859        return f"{this}({expressions})"
2860
2861    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
2862        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
2863
2864    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
2865        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
2866        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
2867        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
2868        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
2869
2870        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
2871        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
2872            then = f"INSERT {self.sql(then_expression, 'this')}"
2873            if "expression" in then_expression.args:
2874                then += f" VALUES {self.sql(then_expression, 'expression')}"
2875        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
2876            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
2877                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
2878            else:
2879                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
2880        else:
2881            then = self.sql(then_expression)
2882        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
2883
2884    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
2885        table = expression.this
2886        table_alias = ""
2887
2888        hints = table.args.get("hints")
2889        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
2890            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
2891            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
2892
2893        this = self.sql(table)
2894        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
2895        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
2896        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ")
2897
2898        return self.prepend_ctes(
2899            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias} {using} {on} {expressions}"
2900        )
2901
2902    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
2903        if expression.args.get("format"):
2904            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
2905
2906        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, "text"))
2907
2908    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
2909        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2910        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2911        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
2912        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
2913        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
2914
2915    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
2916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
2918        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
2919        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
2920
2921    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
2922        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
2923
2924    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
2925        return ""
2926
2927    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
2928        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
2929        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
2930        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
2931        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
2932        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
2933
2934    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
2935        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2936        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
2937
2938        if having:
2939            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
2940
2941        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
2942
2943    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
2944        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
2945        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
2946        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
2947        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
2948        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
2949        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
2950        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2951        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
2952        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
2953        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
2954        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
2955        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
2956        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
2957
2958    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
2959        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
2960        if key_block_size:
2961            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
2962
2963        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
2964        if using:
2965            return f"USING {using}"
2966
2967        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
2968        if parser:
2969            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
2970
2971        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
2972        if comment:
2973            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
2974
2975        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
2976        if visible is not None:
2977            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
2978
2979        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
2980        if engine_attr:
2981            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
2982
2983        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
2984        if secondary_engine_attr:
2985            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
2986
2987        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
2988        return ""
2989
2990    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
2991        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2992        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
2993        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2994        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
2995        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
2996        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
2997        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2998        schema = f" {schema}" if schema else ""
2999        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3000        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3001        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{schema}{options}"
3002
3003    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3004        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3005            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3006
3007        case = exp.Case().when(
3008            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3009            expression.args["true"],
3010            copy=False,
3011        )
3012        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3013        if else_cond:
3014            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3015
3016        return self.sql(case)
3017
3018    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3019        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3020        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3021        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3022        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3023        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3024        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3025
3026    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3027        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3028
3029    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3030        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3031
3032    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3033        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3034        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3035        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3036        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3037        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3038        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3039
3040    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3041        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3042        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3043        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3044
3045    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3046        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3047        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3048        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3049
3050    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3051        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3052            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3053
3054            expression = simplify(expression)
3055
3056        return expression