Package pygeodesy |
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# Package pygeodesy

A pure Python implementation of geodesy tools for various ellipsoidal and spherical earth models using precision trigonometric, vector-based, exact, elliptic, iterative and approximate methods for geodetic (lat-/longitude) and geocentric (ECEF cartesian) coordinates.

Transcoded from JavaScript originals by Chris Veness (C) 2005-2022 and from several C++ classes by Charles F.F. Karney (C) 2008-2022 and published under the same MIT License**.

There are four modules for ellipsoidal earth models, `ellipsoidalExact`, `-Karney`, `-Vincenty` and `-Nvector` and two for spherical ones, `sphericalTrigonometry` and `-Nvector`. Each module provides a geodetic `LatLon` and a geocentric `Cartesian` class with methods and functions to compute distance, surface area, perimeter, initial and final bearing, intermediate and nearest points, circle intersections, path intersections, 3-point resections, rhumb and rhumb lines, trilateration (by intersection, by overlap and in 3d), conversions and unrolling, among other things. For more information and further details see the documentation, the descriptions of Latitude/Longitude, Vincenty and Vector-based geodesy, the original JavaScript source or docs and Karney's Python geographiclib and C++ GeographicLib.

Also included are modules for conversions to and from Cassini-Soldner, ECEF (Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed cartesian), UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator and Exact), UPS (Universal Polar Stereographic) and Web Mercator (Pseudo-Mercator) coordinates, MGRS (Military Grid Reference System, UTM and UPS) and OSGR (British Ordinance Survery Grid Reference) grid references, TRF (Terrestrial Reference Frames) and modules to encode and decode EPSG, Geohashes, Georefs (WGRS) and Garefs (GARS).

Other modules provide Albers equal-area projections, equidistant and other azimuthal projections, Lambert conformal conic projections and positions, functions to clip a path or polygon of `LatLon` points using the Cohen-Sutherland, the Liang-Barsky and the Sutherland-Hodgman methods, functions to simplify or linearize a path of `LatLon` points (or a NumPy array), including implementations of the Ramer-Douglas-Peucker the Visvalingam-Whyatt and the Reumann-Witkam algorithms and modified versions of the former. Other classes interpolate the height of `LatLon` points and Geoid models or compute various Fréchet or Hausdorff distances.

# Installation

To install PyGeodesy, type `pip install PyGeodesy` or `easy_install PyGeodesy` in a terminal or command window.

Alternatively, download `PyGeodesy-yy.m.d.zip` from PyPI or GitHub, `unzip` the downloaded file, `cd` to directory `Pygeodesy-yy.m.d` and type `python[3] setup.py install`.

To run all PyGeodesy tests, type `python[3] setup.py test` or type `python[3] test/run.py` or type `python[3] test/unitTestSuite.py` before or after installation.

# Dependencies

Installation of Karney's Python package geographiclib is optional, but required to use modules ellipsoidalKarney and css, azimuthal classes EquidistantKarney and GnomonicKarney and the HeightIDWkarney interpolator.

Both numpy and scipy must be installed for most Geoid... and Height... interpolators, except GeoidKarney and the HeightIDW... ones.

Functions and `LatLon` methods circin6, circum3, circum4_, soddy4, trilaterate3d2 and `trilaterate5` require numpy.

Modules ellipsoidalGeodSolve and geodsolve and azimuthal classes EquidistantGeodSolve and GnomonicGeodSolve depend on Karney's C++ utility GeodSolve to be executable and set with env variable `PYGEODESY_GEODSOLVE`.

To compare `MGRS` results from modules mgrs and `testMgrs` with Karney's C++ utility GeoConvert, the latter must be executable and set with env variable `PYGEODESY_GEOCONVERT`.

Module rhumbsolve needs Karney's C++ utility RhumbSolve to be executable and set with env variable `PYGEODESY_RHUMBSOLVE`.

# Documentation

In addition to the `pygeodesy` package, the PyGeodesy distribution files contain the tests, the test results (on macOS only) and the complete documentation (generated by Epydoc using command line: `epydoc --html --no-private --no-source --name=PyGeodesy --url=... -v pygeodesy`).

# Tests

The tests ran with Python 3.11.0rc1 (with geographiclib 2.0), Python 3.10.7 (with geographiclib 2.0, numpy 1.22.4, scipy 1.8.1, GeoConvert 1.51, GeodSolve 1.51 and RhumbSolve 1.51), Python 3.9.6, Python 3.8.10 (with geographiclib 1.52, numpy 1.19.2 and scipy 1.5.2) and Python 2.7.18 (with geographiclib 1.50, numpy 1.16.6, scipy 1.2.2, GeoConvert 1.51, GeodSolve 1.51 and RhumbSolve 1.51), all on macOS 12.6 Monterey and in 64-bit only.

All tests ran with and without `lazy import` for Python 3 and with command line option `-W default` and env variable `PYGEODESY_WARNINGS=on` for all Python versions. The results of those tests are included in the distribution files.

Test coverage has been measured with coverage 4.5.4 using Python 3.10.7, 3.9.6 and 2.7.18. The complete coverage report in HTML and a PDF summary are included in the distribution files.

Python 3.11.0rc1, 3.10.7 and 3.9.6 ran on Apple M1 Silicon (`arm64`), natively. Python 3.8.10 and 2.7.18 ran on Intel (`x86_64`) or Intel emulation ("`arm64_x86_64`"), see function pygeodesy.machine.

The tests also ran with Python 3.10.7 (and geographiclib 2.0) on Debian 11 in 64-bit only and with Python 3.9.6, 3.8.0 and 2.7.17 (all with geographiclib 1.52) on Windows Server 2012R2 in 64- and/or 32-bit.

A single-File and single-Directory application with `pygeodesy` has been bundled using PyInstaller 3.4 and 64-bit Python 3.7.3 on macOS 10.13.6 High Sierra.

Previously, the tests were run with Python 3.10.1-6, 3.9.1, 3.8.7, 3.7.1, 2.7.15, PyPy 7.3.1 (Python 3.6.9) and PyPy 7.1.1 (Python 2.7.13) (and geographiclib 1.52 and numpy 1.16.3, 1.16.4, 1.16.6, 1.19.0, 1.19.4 or 1.19.5) on Ubuntu 16.04, with Python 3.10.0-1, 3.9.0-5, 3.8.0-6, 3.7.2-6, 3.7.0, 3.6.2-5, 3.5.3, 2.7.13-17, 2.7.10 and 2.6.9 (and numpy 1.19.0, 1.16.5, 1.16.2, 1.15.2, 1.14.0, 1.13.1, 1.8.0rc1 or 1.6.2 and scipy 1.5.0), PyPy 7.3.0 (Python 2.7.13 and 3.6.9), PyPy 6.0.0 (Python 2.7.13 and 3.5.3) and Intel-Python 3.5.3 (and numpy 1.11.3) on macOS 12.1-5 Monterey, 11.0-5.2-6.1 Big Sur (aka 10.16), 10.15.3, 10.15.5-7 Catalina, macOS 10.14 Mojave, macOS 10.13.6 High Sierra, macOS 10.12 Sierra, MacOS X 10.11 El Capitan and/or MacOS X 10.10 Yosemite, with Pythonista 3.2 (with geographiclib 1.50 or 1.49 and numpy 1.8.0) on iOS 14.4.2, 11.4.1, 12.0-3 on iPad4, iPhone6, iPhone10 and/or iPhone12, with Pythonista 3.1 on iOS 10.3.3, 11.0.3, 11.1.2 and 11.3 on iPad4, all in 64-bit only and with 32-bit Python 2.7.14 on Windows 10 Pro and with 32-bit Python 2.6.6 on Windows XP SP3.

# Notes

All Python source code has been statically checked with PyChecker, PyFlakes, PyCodeStyle (formerly Pep8) and McCabe using Python 2.7.18 and with Flake8 using Python 3.10.7, both in 64-bit on macOS 12.6 Monterey.

For a summary of all Karney-based functionality in `pygeodesy`, see module karney.

In Python 2, symbols S_DEG, S_MIN, S_SEC, S_RAD and S_SEP may be multi-byte, non-ascii characters and if so, not `unicode`.

# Env variables

The following environment variables are observed by `PyGeodesy`:

- `PYGEODESY_EXCEPTION_CHAINING` - see module pygeodesy.errors.
- `PYGEODESY_FSUM_PARTIALS` - see module pygeodesy.fsums and class pygeodesy.Fsum.
- `PYGEODESY_FSUM_RESIDUAL` - see module pygeodesy.fsums and class pygeodesy.Fsum.
- `PYGEODESY_GEOCONVERT` - see module pygeodesy.mgrs.
- `PYGEODESY_GEODSOLVE` - see module pygeodesy.geodsolve.
- `PYGEODESY_LAZY_IMPORT` - see module pygeodesy.lazily and variable pygeodesy.isLazy.
- `PYGEODESY_NOTIMPLEMENTED` - __special__ methods return `NotImplemented` if set to "std".
- `PYGEODESY_RHUMBSOLVE` - see module pygeodesy.rhumbsolve.
- `PYGEODESY_UPS_POLES` - see modules pygeodesy.ups and pygeodesy.mgrs.

and these to control standard or named `repr`esentations:

- `PYGEODESY_BEARING_STD_REPR` - see method pygeodesy.Bearing`.__repr__`.
- `PYGEODESY_BOOL_STD_REPR` - see method pygeodesy.Bool`.__repr__`.
- `PYGEODESY_DEGREES_STD_REPR` - see method pygeodesy.Degrees`.__repr__`.
- `PYGEODESY_FLOAT_STD_REPR` - see method pygeodesy.Float`.__repr__`.
- `PYGEODESY_INT_STD_REPR` - see method pygeodesy.Int`.__repr__`.
- `PYGEODESY_METER_STD_REPR` - see method pygeodesy.Meter`.__repr__`.
- `PYGEODESY_RADIANS_STD_REPR` - see method pygeodesy.Radians`.__repr__`.
- `PYGEODESY_STR_STD_REPR` - see method pygeodesy.Str`.__repr__`.

plus during development:

- `PYGEODESY_FOR_DOCS` - for extended documentation by `epydoc`.
- `PYGEODESY_GEOGRAPHICLIB` - see module pygeodesy.karney.
- `PYGEODESY_WARNINGS` - see module pygeodesy.props and function pygeodesy.DeprecationWarnings.
- `PYGEODESY_XPACKAGES` - see module pygeodesy.basics.
- `PYTHONDEVMODE` - see modules pygeodesy.errors and pygeodesy.props.

and:

- `PYGEODESY_INIT__ALL__` - Set env variable `PYGEODESY_INIT__ALL__` to anything other than `"__all__"` to avoid importing all `pygeodesy` modules unnecessarily (in Python 2 or with `PYGEODESY_LAZY_IMPORT` turned off in Python 3). However, to import a `pygeodesy` item, the item name must be qualified with the `module` name, for example `from pygeodesy.ellipsoidalExact import LatLon`

# License

**) Copyright (C) 2016-2022 -- mrJean1 at Gmail -- All Rights Reserved.

`Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:`

`The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.`

`THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.`

Version: 22.10.01

Submodules
pygeodesy.__main__: Print pygeodesy version, etc. pygeodesy.albers: Albers Equal-Area projections. pygeodesy.azimuthal: Equidistant, Equal-Area, and other Azimuthal projections. pygeodesy.basics: Some, basic definitions, functions and dependencies. pygeodesy.cartesianBase: (INTERNAL) Private base classes for elliposiodal, spherical and N-/vectorial `Cartesian`s. pygeodesy.clipy: Clip a path or polygon against a box or region. pygeodesy.constants: Single-instance `float` and `int` constants across `pygeodesy` modules and related functions pygeodesy.float_, pygeodesy.isclose, pygeodesy.isfinite, pygeodesy.isinf, pygeodesy.isint0, pygeodesy.isnan, pygeodesy.isnear0, pygeodesy.isnear1, pygeodesy.isnear90, pygeodesy.isneg0, pygeodesy.isninf, pygeodesy.isnon0 and pygeodesy.remainder. pygeodesy.css: Cassini-Soldner (CSS) projection. pygeodesy.datums: Datums and transformations thereof. pygeodesy.deprecated: DEPRECATED constants, classes, functions, methods, etc. pygeodesy.deprecated.bases: DEPRECATED, use module latlonBase instead. pygeodesy.deprecated.datum: DEPRECATED, use module datums or ellipsoids instead. pygeodesy.deprecated.nvector: DEPRECATED, use module nvectorBase instead. pygeodesy.dms: Parsers and formatters of angles in degrees, minutes and seconds or radians. pygeodesy.ecef: Geocentric Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) coordinates. pygeodesy.elevations: Web-services-based elevations and geoid heights. pygeodesy.ellipsoidalBase: (INTERNAL) Private ellipsoidal base classes `CartesianEllipsoidalBase` and `LatLonEllipsoidalBase`. pygeodesy.ellipsoidalBaseDI: (INTERNAL) Private, ellipsoidal Direct/Inverse geodesy base class `LatLonEllipsoidalBaseDI` and functions. pygeodesy.ellipsoidalExact: Exact ellipsoidal geodesy using Karney's Exact Geodesic. pygeodesy.ellipsoidalGeodSolve: Exact ellipsoidal geodesy, intended for testing purposes only. pygeodesy.ellipsoidalKarney: Ellipsoidal, Karney-based geodesy. pygeodesy.ellipsoidalNvector: Ellipsoidal, `N-vector`-based geodesy. pygeodesy.ellipsoidalVincenty: Ellipsoidal, Vincenty-based geodesy. pygeodesy.ellipsoids: Ellipsoidal and spherical earth models. pygeodesy.elliptic: Karney's elliptic functions and integrals. pygeodesy.epsg: European Petroleum Survey Group (EPSG) en-/decoding. pygeodesy.errors: Errors, exceptions, exception formatting and exception chaining. pygeodesy.etm: A pure Python version of Karney's `Exact Transverse Mercator` (ETM) projection. pygeodesy.fmath: Utilities using precision floating point summation. pygeodesy.formy: Formulary of basic geodesy functions and approximations. pygeodesy.frechet: Fréchet distances. pygeodesy.fstats: Classes for running statistics and regreesions based on pygeodesy.Fsum, precision floating point summation. pygeodesy.fsums: Class Fsum for precision floating point summation and running summation, based on respectively similar to Python's `math.fsum`. pygeodesy.gars: Global Area Reference System (GARS) en-/decoding. pygeodesy.geodesicx: A pure Python version of Karney's C++ classes GeodesicExact and GeodesicLineExact. pygeodesy.geodesicx._C4_24: A Python version of part of Karney's C++ module GeodesicExactC4. pygeodesy.geodesicx._C4_27: A Python version of part of Karney's C++ module GeodesicExactC4. pygeodesy.geodesicx._C4_30: A Python version of part of Karney's C++ module GeodesicExactC4. pygeodesy.geodesicx.__main__: Print geodesicx version, etc. pygeodesy.geodesicx.gx: A Python version of Karney's C++ class GeodesicExact. pygeodesy.geodesicx.gxarea: Slightly enhanced versions of Karney's Python classes PolygonArea and `Accumulator`. pygeodesy.geodesicx.gxbases: (INTERNAL) Private geodesicx base class, functions and constants. pygeodesy.geodesicx.gxline: A Python version of Karney's C++ class GeodesicLineExact. pygeodesy.geodsolve: Wrapper to invoke Karney's GeodSolve utility as an (exact) geodesic, but intended for testing purposes only. pygeodesy.geohash: Geohash en-/decoding. pygeodesy.geoids: Geoid models and geoid height interpolations. pygeodesy.hausdorff: Hausdorff distances. pygeodesy.heights: Height interpolations of `LatLon` points. pygeodesy.interns: Single `str`ing constants, `intern`'ed across `pygeodesy` modules and function pygeodesy.machine. pygeodesy.iters: Iterators with options. pygeodesy.karney: Charles F.F. Karney's geographiclib `geodesic`, wrapped. pygeodesy.ktm: A pure Python version of Karney's C++ class TransverseMercator based on Krüger series. pygeodesy.latlonBase: (INTERNAL) Private base class LatLonBase for elliposiodal, spherical and N-vectorial `LatLon`s. pygeodesy.lazily: Lazily import `pygeodesy` modules and attributes, based on lazy_import from Brett Cannon's modutil. pygeodesy.lcc: Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC) projection. pygeodesy.ltp: Local Tangent Plane (LTP) and local cartesian coordinates. pygeodesy.ltpTuples: Named, Local Tangent Plane (LTP) tuples. pygeodesy.mgrs: Military Grid Reference System (MGRS/NATO) references. pygeodesy.named: (INTERNAL) Nameable class instances. pygeodesy.namedTuples: Named tuples. pygeodesy.nvectorBase: (INTERNAL) Private elliposiodal and spherical `Nvector` base classes LatLonNvectorBase and NvectorBase and function sumOf. pygeodesy.osgr: Ordnance Survey Grid References (OSGR) references on the UK National Grid. pygeodesy.points: Utilities for point lists, tuples, etc. pygeodesy.props: Mutable, immutable and caching/memoizing properties and deprecation decorators. pygeodesy.resections: 3-Point resection functions cassini, collins5, pierlot and tienstra7, survey functions snellius3 and wildberger3 and triangle functions triAngle, triAngle4, triSide, triSide2 and triSide4. pygeodesy.rhumbsolve: Wrapper to invoke Karney's RhumbSolve utility as an (exact) rhumb or rhumb line, but intended for testing purposes only. pygeodesy.rhumbx: A pure Python version of Karney's C++ classes Rhumb and RhumbLine. pygeodesy.simplify: Simplify or linearize a path. pygeodesy.solveBase: (INTERNAL) Private base classes for pygeodesy.geodsolve and pygeodesy.rhumbsolve. pygeodesy.sphericalBase: (INTERNAL) Private spherical base classes `CartesianSphericalBase` and `LatLonSphericalBase` for sphericalNvector and sphericalTrigonometry. pygeodesy.sphericalNvector: Spherical, `N-vector`-based geodesy. pygeodesy.sphericalTrigonometry: Spherical, `trigonometry`-based geodesy. pygeodesy.streprs: Floating point and other formatting utilities. pygeodesy.trf: Veness' Terrestrial Reference Frames (TRF). pygeodesy.units: Various units, all sub-classes of `Float`, `Int` and `Str` from basic `float`, `int` respectively `str` to named units as Degrees, Feet, Meter, Radians, etc. pygeodesy.unitsBase: Basic `Float`, `Int` and `Str`ing units classes. pygeodesy.ups: Karney's Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) projection. pygeodesy.utily: Various utility functions. pygeodesy.utm: Veness' Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection. pygeodesy.utmups: Karney's UTM and UPS utilities. pygeodesy.utmupsBase: (INTERNAL) Private class `UtmUpsBase`, functions and constants for epsg, etm, mgrs, ups and utm. pygeodesy.vector2d: 2- or 3-D vectorial functions circin6, circum3, circum4_, iscolinearWith, meeus2, nearestOn, radii11 and soddy4. pygeodesy.vector3d: Extended 3-D vector class Vector3d and functions. pygeodesy.vector3dBase: (INTERNAL) Private, 3-D vector base class `Vector3dBase`. pygeodesy.webmercator: Web Mercator (WM) projection. pygeodesy.wgrs: World Geographic Reference System (WGRS) en-/decoding.

Classes
| LazyImportError Raised if `lazy import` is not supported, disabled or failed some other way.
| VincentyError Error raised from Vincenty's `direct` and `inverse` methods for coincident points or lack of convergence.
| Epsg EPSG class, a named `int`.
| EPSGError EPSG encode, decode or other Epsg issue.
| Garef Garef class, a named `str`.
| GARSError Global Area Reference System (GARS) encode, decode or other Garef issue.
| Geohash Geohash class, a named `str`.
| GeohashError Geohash encode, decode or other Geohash issue.
| Neighbors8Dict 8-Dict `(N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW)` of Geohashes, providing key and attribute access to the items.
| Resolutions2Tuple 2-Tuple `(res1, res2)` with the primary (longitudinal) and secondary (latitudinal) resolution, both in `degrees`.
| Georef Georef class, a named `str`.
| WGRSError World Geographic Reference System (WGRS) encode, decode or other Georef issue.
| Aer Local `Azimuth-Elevation-Range` (AER) in a local tangent plane.
| Aer4Tuple 4-Tuple `(azimuth, elevation, slantrange, ltp)`, all in `meter` except `ltp`.
| Albers7Tuple 7-Tuple `(x, y, lat, lon, gamma, scale, datum)`, in `meter`, `meter`, `degrees90`, `degrees180`, `degrees360`, `scalar` and `Datum` where `(x, y)` is the projected, `(lat, lon)` the geodetic location, `gamma` the meridian convergence at point, the bearing of the y-axis measured clockwise from true North and `scale` is the azimuthal scale of the projection at point.
| AlbersEqualArea An Albers equal-area (authalic) projection with a single standard parallel.
| AlbersEqualArea2 An Albers equal-area (authalic) projection with two standard parallels.
| AlbersEqualArea4 An Albers equal-area (authalic) projection specified by the `sin` and `cos` of both standard parallels.
| AlbersEqualAreaCylindrical An AlbersEqualArea projection at `lat=0` and `k0=1` degenerating to the cylindrical-equal-area projection.
| AlbersEqualAreaNorth An azimuthal AlbersEqualArea projection at `lat=90` and `k0=1` degenerating to the azimuthal LambertEqualArea projection.
| AlbersEqualAreaSouth An azimuthal AlbersEqualArea projection at `lat=-90` and `k0=1` degenerating to the azimuthal LambertEqualArea projection.
| AlbersError An AlbersEqualArea, AlbersEqualArea2, AlbersEqualArea4, AlbersEqualAreaCylindrical, AlbersEqualAreaNorth, AlbersEqualAreaSouth or Albers7Tuple issue.
| Area3Tuple 3-Tuple `(number, perimeter, area)` with the `number` of points on the polygon or polyline, the `perimeter` in `meter` and the `area` in `meter` squared.
| Attitude The orientation of a plane or camera in space.
| Attitude4Tuple 4-Tuple `(alt, tilt, yaw, roll)` with `altitude` in (positive) `meter` and `tilt`, `yaw` and `roll` in `degrees` representing the attitude of a plane or camera.
| AttitudeError An Attitude or Attitude4Tuple issue.
| Azimuthal7Tuple 7-Tuple `(x, y, lat, lon, azimuth, scale, datum)`, in `meter`, `meter`, `degrees90`, `degrees180`, compass `degrees`, `scalar` and `Datum` where `(x, y)` is the easting and northing of a projected point, `(lat, lon)` the geodetic location, `azimuth` the azimuth, clockwise from true North and `scale` is the projection scale, either `1 / reciprocal` or `1` or `-1` in the Equidistant case.
| AzimuthalError An azimuthal Equidistant, EquidistantKarney, Gnomonic, LambertEqualArea, Orthographic, Stereographic or Azimuthal7Tuple issue.
| Band Named `str` representing a UTM/UPS band letter, unchecked.
| Bearing Named `float` representing a bearing in compass `degrees` from (true) North.
| Bearing2Tuple 2-Tuple `(initial, final)` bearings, both in compass `degrees360`.
| Bearing_ Named `float` representing a bearing in `radians` from compass `degrees` from (true) North.
| Bool Named `bool`, a sub-class of `int` like Python's `bool`.
| Bounds2Tuple 2-Tuple `(latlonSW, latlonNE)` with the bounds' lower-left and upper-right corner as `LatLon` instance.
| Bounds4Tuple 4-Tuple `(latS, lonW, latN, lonE)` with the bounds' lower-left `(LatS, LowW)` and upper-right `(latN, lonE)` corner lat- and longitudes.
| CSSError Cassini-Soldner (CSS) conversion or other Css issue.
| CassiniSoldner Cassini-Soldner projection, a Python version of Karney's C++ class CassiniSoldner.
| ChLV Conversion between WGS84 geodetic and Swiss projection coordinates using pygeodesy.EcefKarney's Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) methods.
| ChLV9Tuple 9-Tuple `(Y, X, h_, lat, lon, height, ltp, ecef, M)` with unfalsed Swiss (Y, X, h_) coordinates and height, all in `meter`, `ltp` either a ChLV, ChLVa or ChLVe instance and `ecef` (EcefKarney at Bern, Ch, otherwise like Local9Tuple.
| ChLVEN2Tuple 2-Tuple `(E_LV95, N_LV95)` with falsed Swiss LV95 easting and norting in `meter` with origin at `Bern, Ch` `(2_600_000, 1_200_000)`.
| ChLVYX2Tuple 2-Tuple `(Y, X)` with unfalsed Swiss LV95 easting and norting in `meter`.
| ChLVa Conversion between WGS84 geodetic and Swiss projection coordinates using the Approximate formulas, pp 13-14.
| ChLVe Conversion between WGS84 geodetic and Swiss projection coordinates using the Ellipsoidal approximate formulas, pp 10-11.
| ChLVyx2Tuple 2-Tuple `(y_LV03, x_LV03)` with falsed Swiss LV03 easting and norting in `meter` with origin at `Bern, Ch` `(600_000, 200_000)`.
| Circin6Tuple 6-Tuple `(radius, center, deltas, cA, cB, cC)` with the `radius`, the trilaterated `center` and contact points of the inscribed aka In- circle of a triangle.
| Circle4Tuple 4-Tuple `(radius, height, lat, beta)` of the `radius` and `height`, both conventionally in `meter` of a parallel circle of latitude at (geodetic) latitude `lat` and the parametric (or reduced) auxiliary latitude `beta`, both in `degrees90`.
| Circum3Tuple 3-Tuple `(radius, center, deltas)` with the `circumradius` and trilaterated `circumcenter` of the `circumcircle` through 3 points (aka {Meeus}' Type II circle) or the `radius` and `center` of the smallest Meeus' Type I circle.
| Circum4Tuple 4-Tuple `(radius, center, rank, residuals)` with `radius` and `center` of a sphere least-squares fitted through given points and the `rank` and `residuals` -if any- from numpy.linalg.lstsq.
| ClipCS3Tuple DEPRECATED, see function pygeodesy.clipCS3.
| ClipCS4Tuple 4-Tuple `(start, end, i, j)` for each edge of a clipped path with the `start` and `end` points (`LatLon`) of the portion of the edge inside or on the clip box and the indices `i` and `j` (`int`) of the edge start and end points in the original path.
| ClipError Clip box or clip region issue.
| ClipLB6Tuple 6-Tuple `(start, end, i, fi, fj, j)` for each edge of the clipped path with the `start` and `end` points (`LatLon`) of the portion of the edge inside or on the clip box, indices `i` and `j` (both `int`) of the original path edge start and end points and fractional indices `fi` and `fj` (both FIx) of the `start` and `end` points along the edge of the original path.
| ClipSH3Tuple 3-Tuple `(start, end, original)` for each edge of a clipped polygon, the `start` and `end` points (`LatLon`) of the portion of the edge inside or on the clip region and `original` indicates whether the edge is part of the original polygon or part of the clip region (`bool`).
| Collins5Tuple 5-Tuple `(pointP, pointH, a, b, c)` with survey `pointP`, auxiliary `pointH`, each an instance of `pointA`'s (sub-)class and triangle sides `a`, `b` and `c` in `meter`, conventionally.
| Conic Lambert conformal conic projection (1- or 2-SP).
| CrossError Error raised for zero or near-zero vectorial cross products, occurring for coincident or colinear points, paths or bearings.
| Css Cassini-Soldner East-/Northing location.
| Curvature2Tuple 2-Tuple `(meridional, prime_vertical)` of radii of curvature, both in `meter`, conventionally.
| Datum Ellipsoid and transform parameters for an earth model.
| Degrees Named `float` representing a coordinate in `degrees`, optionally clipped.
| Degrees2 Named `float` representing a distance in `degrees squared`.
| Degrees_ Named `Degrees` representing a coordinate in `degrees` with optional limits `low` and `high`.
| Destination2Tuple 2-Tuple `(destination, final)`, `destination` in `LatLon` and `final` bearing in compass `degrees360`.
| Destination3Tuple 3-Tuple `(lat, lon, final)`, destination `lat`, `lon` in `degrees90` respectively `degrees180` and `final` bearing in compass `degrees360`.
| Direct9Tuple 9-Tuple `(a12, lat2, lon2, azi2, s12, m12, M12, M21, S12)` with arc length `a12`, angles `lat2`, `lon2` and azimuth `azi2` in `degrees`, distance `s12` and reduced length `m12` in `meter` and area `S12` in `meter` squared.
| Distance Named `float` representing a distance, conventionally in `meter`.
| Distance2Tuple 2-Tuple `(distance, initial)`, `distance` in `meter` and `initial` bearing in compass `degrees360`.
| Distance3Tuple 3-Tuple `(distance, initial, final)`, `distance` in `meter` and `initial` and `final` bearing, both in compass `degrees360`.
| Distance4Tuple 4-Tuple `(distance2, delta_lat, delta_lon, unroll_lon2)` with the distance in `degrees squared`, the latitudinal `delta_lat = lat2 - lat1`, the wrapped, unrolled and adjusted longitudinal `delta_lon = lon2 - lon1` and `unroll_lon2`, the unrolled or original `lon2`.
| Distance_ Named `float` with optional `low` and `high` limits representing a distance, conventionally in `meter`.
| ETMError Exact Transverse Mercator (ETM) parse, projection or other Etm issue or ExactTransverseMercator conversion failure.
| EasNor2Tuple 2-Tuple `(easting, northing)`, both in `meter`, conventionally.
| EasNor3Tuple 3-Tuple `(easting, northing, height)`, all in `meter`, conventionally.
| EasNorAziRk4Tuple 4-Tuple `(easting, northing, azimuth, reciprocal)` for the Cassini-Soldner location with `easting` and `northing` in `meters` and the `azimuth` of easting direction and `reciprocal` of azimuthal northing scale, both in `degrees`.
| EasNorAziRkEqu6Tuple 6-Tuple `(easting, northing, azimuth, reciprocal, equatorarc, equatorazimuth)` for the Cassini-Soldner location with `easting` and `northing` in `meters` and the `azimuth` of easting direction, `reciprocal` of azimuthal northing scale, `equatorarc` and `equatorazimuth`, all in `degrees`.
| EasNorExact4Tuple DEPRECATED, use class Forward4Tuple.
| EasNorRadius3Tuple 3-Tuple `(easting, northing, radius)`, all in `meter`.
| Easting Named `float` representing an easting, conventionally in `meter`.
| Ecef9Tuple 9-Tuple `(x, y, z, lat, lon, height, C, M, datum)` with geocentric `x`, `y` and `z` plus geodetic `lat`, `lon` and `height`, case `C` (see the `Ecef*.reverse` methods) and optionally, the rotation matrix `M` (EcefMatrix) and `datum`, with `lat` and `lon` in `degrees` and `x`, `y`, `z` and `height` in `meter`, conventionally.
| EcefError An ECEF or `Ecef*` related issue.
| EcefFarrell21 Conversion between geodetic and geocentric, aka Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) coordinates based on Jay A. Farrell's Table 2.1, page 29.
| EcefFarrell22 Conversion between geodetic and geocentric, aka Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) coordinates based on Jay A. Farrell's Table 2.2, page 30.
| EcefKarney Conversion between geodetic and geocentric, aka Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) coordinates transcoded from Karney's C++ Geocentric methods.
| EcefMatrix A rotation matrix.
| EcefSudano Conversion between geodetic and geocentric, aka Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) coordinates based on John J. Sudano's paper.
| EcefVeness Conversion between geodetic and geocentric, aka Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) coordinates transcoded from Chris Veness' JavaScript classes LatLonEllipsoidal, Cartesian.
| EcefYou Conversion between geodetic and geocentric, aka Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) coordinates using Rey-Jer You's transformation.
| Elevation2Tuple 2-Tuple `(elevation, data_source)` in `meter` and `str`.
| Ellipsoid Ellipsoid with equatorial and polar radii, flattening, inverse flattening and other, often used, cached attributes, supporting oblate and prolate ellipsoidal and spherical earth models.
| Ellipsoid2 An Ellipsoid specified by equatorial radius and flattening.
| Elliptic Elliptic integrals and functions.
| Elliptic3Tuple 3-Tuple `(sn, cn, dn)` all `scalar`.
| EllipticError Elliptic integral, function, convergence or other Elliptic issue.
| Enu Local `Eeast-North-Up` (ENU) location in a local tangent plane.
| Enu4Tuple 4-Tuple `(east, north, up, ltp)`, in `meter` except `ltp`.
| Epoch Named `epoch` with optional `low` and `high` limits representing a fractional calendar year.
| Equidistant Azimuthal equidistant projection for the sphere***, see Snyder, pp 195-197 and MathWorld-Wolfram.
| EquidistantExact Azimuthal equidistant projection, a Python version of Karney's C++ class AzimuthalEquidistant, based on exact geodesic classes GeodesicExact and GeodesicLineExact.
| EquidistantGeodSolve Azimuthal equidistant projection, a Python version of Karney's C++ class AzimuthalEquidistant, based on (exact) geodesic wrappers GeodesicSolve and GeodesicLineSolve and intended for testing purposes only.
| EquidistantKarney Azimuthal equidistant projection, a Python version of Karney's C++ class AzimuthalEquidistant, requiring package geographiclib to be installed.
| Etm Exact Transverse Mercator (ETM) coordinate, a sub-class of Utm, a Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate using the ExactTransverseMercator projection for highest accuracy.
| ExactTransverseMercator A Python version of Karney's TransverseMercatorExact C++ class, a numerically exact transverse Mercator projection, here referred to as `TMExact`.
| FIx A named Fractional Index, an `int` or `float` index into a `list` or `tuple` of `points`, typically.
| Fcbrt Precision cubic root of summation.
| Fcook Cook's `RunningStats` computing the running mean, median and (sample) kurtosis, skewness, variance, standard deviation and Jarque-Bera normality.
| Fdot Precision dot product.
| Feet Named `float` representing a distance or length in `feet`.
| Fhorner Precision polynomial evaluation using the Horner form.
| Fhypot Precision hypotenuse of summation.
| Flinear Cook's `RunningRegression` computing the running slope, intercept and correlation of a linear regression.
| Float Named `float`.
| Float_ Named `float` with optional `low` and `high` limit.
| Fn_rt Precision n-th root of summation.
| Footprint5Tuple 5-Tuple `(center, upperleft, upperight, loweright, lowerleft)` with the `center` and 4 corners of the local projection of a `Frustum`, each an Xyz4Tuple, XyzLocal, `LatLon`, etc.
| Forward4Tuple 4-Tuple `(easting, northing, convergence, scale)` in `meter`, `meter`, `degrees` and `scalar`.
| Fpolynomial Precision polynomial evaluation.
| Fpowers Precision summation or powers, optimized for `power=2`.
| Frechet Frechet base class, requires method Frechet.distance to be overloaded.
| Frechet6Tuple 6-Tuple `(fd, fi1, fi2, r, n, units)` with the discrete Fréchet distance `fd`, fractional indices `fi1` and `fi2` as `FIx`, the recursion depth `r`, the number of distances computed `n` and the units class or class or name of the distance `units`.
| FrechetCosineAndoyerLambert Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.cosineAndoyerLambert_.
| FrechetCosineForsytheAndoyerLambert Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_.
| FrechetCosineLaw Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.cosineLaw_.
| FrechetDegrees Frechet base class for distances in `degrees` from `LatLon` points in `degrees`.
| FrechetDistanceTo Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the distance from the points' `LatLon.distanceTo` method, conventionally in `meter`.
| FrechetEquirectangular Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the equirectangular distance in `radians squared` like function pygeodesy.equirectangular_.
| FrechetError Fréchet issue.
| FrechetEuclidean Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the Euclidean distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.euclidean_.
| FrechetExact Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `degrees` from method GeodesicExact`.Inverse`.
| FrechetFlatLocal Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `radians squared` like function pygeodesy.flatLocal_/pygeodesy.hubeny_.
| FrechetFlatPolar Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function flatPolar_.
| FrechetHaversine Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.haversine_.
| FrechetHubeny Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `radians squared` like function pygeodesy.flatLocal_/pygeodesy.hubeny_.
| FrechetKarney Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `degrees` from Karney's geographiclib Geodesic Inverse method.
| FrechetRadians Frechet base class for distances in `radians` or `radians squared` from `LatLon` points converted from `degrees` to `radians`.
| FrechetThomas Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.thomas_.
| FrechetVincentys Compute the `Frechet` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.vincentys_.
| Frustum A rectangular pyramid, typically representing a camera's field-of-view (fov) and the intersection with (or projection to) a local tangent plane.
| Fsqrt Precision square root of summation.
| Fsum Precision floating point running summation similar to standard Python's `math.fsum`.
| Fsum2Tuple 2-Tuple `(fsum, residual)` with the precision running `fsum` and the `residual`, the sum of the remaining partials.
| Fwelford Welford's accumulator computing the running mean, (sample) variance and standard deviation.
| GDict Basic `dict` with both key and attribute access to the `dict` items.
| GeodSolve12Tuple 12-Tuple `(lat1, lon1, azi1, lat2, lon2, azi2, s12, a12, m12, M12, M21, S12)` with angles `lat1`, `lon1`, `azi1`, `lat2`, `lon2` and `azi2` and arc `a12` all in `degrees`, initial `azi1` and final `azi2` forward azimuths, distance `s12` and reduced length `m12` in `meter`, area `S12` in `meter` squared and geodesic scale factors `M12` and `M21`, both `scalar`, see GeodSolve.
| GeodesicAreaExact Area and perimeter of a geodesic polygon, an enhanced version of Karney's Python class PolygonArea using the more accurate surface area.
| GeodesicError Error raised for pygeodesy.geodesicx lack of convergence or other pygeodesy.geodesicx or pygeodesy.karney issues.
| GeodesicExact A pure Python version of Karney's C++ class GeodesicExact, modeled after Karney's Python class Geodesic.
| GeodesicLineExact A pure Python version of Karney's C++ class GeodesicLineExact, modeled after Karney's Python class GeodesicLine.
| GeodesicLineSolve Wrapper to invoke Karney's GeodSolve as an `Exact` version of Karney's Python class GeodesicLine.
| GeodesicSolve Wrapper to invoke Karney's GeodSolve as an `Exact` version of Karney's Python class Geodesic.
| GeoidError Geoid interpolator `Geoid...` or interpolation issue.
| GeoidG2012B Geoid height interpolator for GEOID12B Model grids CONUS, Alaska, Hawaii, Guam and Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands and American Samoa based on `SciPy` RectBivariateSpline or interp2d interpolation.
| GeoidHeight2Tuple 2-Tuple `(height, model_name)`, geoid `height` in `meter` and `model_name` as `str`.
| GeoidHeight5Tuple 5-Tuple `(lat, lon, egm84, egm96, egm2008)` for GeoidHeights.dat tests with the heights for 3 different EGM grids at `degrees90` and `degrees180` degrees (after converting `lon` from original `0 <= EasterLon <= 360`).
| GeoidKarney Geoid height interpolator for Karney's GeographicLib Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) geoid egm*.pgm datasets using bilinear or cubic interpolation and caching in pure Python, transcoded from Karney's C++ class Geoid.
| GeoidPGM Geoid height interpolator for Karney's GeographicLib Earth Gravitational Model (EGM) geoid egm*.pgm datasets but based on `SciPy` RectBivariateSpline or interp2d interpolation.
| Gnomonic Azimuthal gnomonic projection for the sphere***, see Snyder, pp 164-168 and MathWorld-Wolfram.
| GnomonicExact Azimuthal gnomonic projection, a Python version of Karney's C++ class Gnomonic, based on exact geodesic classes GeodesicExact and GeodesicLineExact.
| GnomonicGeodSolve Azimuthal gnomonic projection, a Python version of Karney's C++ class Gnomonic, based on (exact) geodesic wrappers GeodesicSolve and GeodesicLineSolve and intended for testing purposes only.
| GnomonicKarney Azimuthal gnomonic projection, a Python version of Karney's C++ class Gnomonic, requiring package geographiclib to be installed.
| Hausdorff Hausdorff base class, requires method Hausdorff.distance to be overloaded.
| Hausdorff6Tuple 6-Tuple `(hd, i, j, mn, md, units)` with the Hausdorff distance `hd`, indices `i` and `j`, the total count `mn`, the `mean Hausdorff` distance `md` and the class or name of both distance `units`.
| HausdorffCosineAndoyerLambert Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.cosineAndoyerLambert_.
| HausdorffCosineForsytheAndoyerLambert Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_.
| HausdorffCosineLaw Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.cosineLaw_.
| HausdorffDegrees Hausdorff base class for distances from `LatLon` points in `degrees`.
| HausdorffDistanceTo Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the distance from the points' `LatLon.distanceTo` method, conventionally in `meter`.
| HausdorffEquirectangular Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the `equirectangular` distance in `radians squared` like function pygeodesy.equirectangular_.
| HausdorffError Hausdorff issue.
| HausdorffEuclidean Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the `Euclidean` distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.euclidean_.
| HausdorffExact Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `degrees` from method GeodesicExact`.Inverse`.
| HausdorffFlatLocal Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `radians squared` like function pygeodesy.flatLocal_/pygeodesy.hubeny_.
| HausdorffFlatPolar Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.flatPolar_.
| HausdorffHaversine Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.haversine_.
| HausdorffHubeny Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `radians squared` like function pygeodesy.flatLocal_/pygeodesy.hubeny_.
| HausdorffKarney Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `degrees` from Karney's geographiclib Geodesic Inverse method.
| HausdorffRadians Hausdorff base class for distances from `LatLon` points converted from `degrees` to `radians`.
| HausdorffThomas Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.thomas_.
| HausdorffVincentys Compute the `Hausdorff` distance based on the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.vincentys_.
| Height Named `float` representing a height, conventionally in `meter`.
| HeightCubic Height interpolator based on `SciPy` interp2d `kind='cubic'`.
| HeightError Height interpolator `Height...` or interpolation issue.
| HeightIDWcosineAndoyerLambert Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.cosineAndoyerLambert_.
| HeightIDWcosineForsytheAndoyerLambert Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_.
| HeightIDWcosineLaw Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.cosineLaw_.
| HeightIDWdistanceTo Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the distance from the points' `LatLon.distanceTo` method, conventionally in `meter`.
| HeightIDWequirectangular Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians squared` like function pygeodesy.equirectangular_.
| HeightIDWeuclidean Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.euclidean_.
| HeightIDWflatLocal Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians squared` like function pygeodesy.flatLocal_/pygeodesy.hubeny_.
| HeightIDWflatPolar Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.flatPolar_.
| HeightIDWhaversine Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.haversine_.
| HeightIDWhubeny Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians squared` like function pygeodesy.flatLocal_/pygeodesy.hubeny_.
| HeightIDWkarney Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `degrees` from Karney's geographiclib Geodesic Inverse method.
| HeightIDWthomas Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.thomas_.
| HeightIDWvincentys Height interpolator using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and the angular distance in `radians` from function pygeodesy.vincentys_.
| HeightLSQBiSpline Height interpolator using `SciPy` LSQSphereBivariateSpline.
| HeightLinear Height interpolator based on `SciPy` interp2d `kind='linear'`.
| HeightSmoothBiSpline Height interpolator using `SciPy` SmoothSphereBivariateSpline.
| Helmert7Tuple 7-Tuple `(tx, ty, tz, s, sx, sy, sz)` of Helmert transform parameters with translations `tx`, `ty` and `tz` in `millimeter`, scale `s` in `ppb` and rotations `sx`, `sy` and `sz` in `milliarcseconds`.
| Int Named `int`.
| Int_ Named `int` with optional limits `low` and `high`.
| Intersection3Tuple 3-Tuple `(point, outside1, outside2)` of an intersection `point` and `outside1`, the position of the `point`, `-1` if before the start, `+1` if after the end and `0` if on or between the start and end point of the first line.
| IntersectionError Error raised for path or circle intersection issues.
| Inverse10Tuple 10-Tuple `(a12, s12, salp1, calp1, salp2, calp2, m12, M12, M21, S12)` with arc length `a12` in `degrees`, distance `s12` and reduced length `m12` in `meter`, area `S12` in `meter` squared and the sines `salp1`, `salp2` and cosines `calp1`, `calp2` of the initial `1` and final `2` foward azimuths.
| KTMError Error raised for KTransverseMercator and KTransverseMercator.forward issues.
| KTransverseMercator Transverse Mercator projection based on Krüger's method which evaluates the projection and its inverse in terms of a series.
| LCCError Lambert Conformal Conic `LCC` or other Lcc issue.
| Lam Named `float` representing a longitude in `radians`.
| Lam_ Named `float` representing a longitude in `radians` converted from `degrees`.
| LambertEqualArea Lambert-equal-area projection for the sphere*** (aka Lambert zenithal equal-area projection, see Snyder, pp 185-187 and MathWorld-Wolfram.
| Lat Named `float` representing a latitude in `degrees`.
| LatLon2PsxyIter Iterate and convert for `points` with optional loop-back and copies.
| LatLon2Tuple 2-Tuple `(lat, lon)` in `degrees90` and `degrees180`.
| LatLon2psxy Wrapper for `LatLon` points as "on-the-fly" pseudo-xy coordinates.
| LatLon3Tuple 3-Tuple `(lat, lon, height)` in `degrees90`, `degrees180` and `meter`, conventionally.
| LatLon4Tuple 4-Tuple `(lat, lon, height, datum)` in `degrees90`, `degrees180`, `meter` and Datum.
| LatLonAziRk4Tuple 4-Tuple `(lat, lon, azimuth, reciprocal)`, all in `degrees` where `azimuth` is the azimuth of easting direction and `reciprocal` the reciprocal of azimuthal northing scale.
| LatLonDatum3Tuple 3-Tuple `(lat, lon, datum)` in `degrees90`, `degrees180` and Datum.
| LatLonDatum5Tuple 5-Tuple `(lat, lon, datum, convergence, scale)` in `degrees90`, `degrees180`, Datum, `degrees` and `float`.
| LatLonExact4Tuple DEPRECATED, used class Reverse4Tuple.
| LatLonPrec3Tuple 3-Tuple `(lat, lon, precision)` in `degrees`, `degrees` and `int`.
| LatLonPrec5Tuple 5-Tuple `(lat, lon, precision, height, radius)` in `degrees`, `degrees`, `int` and `height` or `radius` in `meter` (or `None` if missing).
| LatLon_ Low-overhead `LatLon` class for Numpy2LatLon and Tuple2LatLon.
| Lat_ Named `float` representing a latitude in `degrees` within limits `low` and `high`.
| Lcc Lambert conformal conic East-/Northing location.
| LenError Error raised for mis-matching `len` values.
| LimitError Error raised for lat- or longitudinal deltas exceeding the `limit` in functions pygeodesy.equirectangular and pygeodesy.equirectangular_ and several `nearestOn*` and `simplify*` functions or methods.
| Local9Tuple 9-Tuple `(x, y, z, lat, lon, height, ltp, ecef, M)` with local `x`, `y`, `z` all in `meter`, geodetic `lat`, `lon`, `height`, local tangent plane `ltp` (Ltp), `ecef` (Ecef9Tuple) with geocentric `x`, `y`, `z`, geodetic `lat`, `lon`, `height` and concatenated rotation matrix `M` (EcefMatrix) or `None`.
| LocalCartesian Conversion between geodetic `(lat, lon, height)` and local cartesian `(x, y, z)` coordinates with geodetic origin `(lat0, lon0, height0)`, transcoded from Karney's C++ class LocalCartesian.
| LocalError A LocalCartesian or Ltp related issue.
| Lon Named `float` representing a longitude in `degrees`.
| Lon_ Named `float` representing a longitude in `degrees` within limits `low` and `high`.
| Ltp A local tangent plan LTP, a sub-class of `LocalCartesian` with configurable ECEF converter and without optional rotation matrix.
| MGRSError Military Grid Reference System (MGRS) parse or other Mgrs issue.
| Meeus2Tuple 2-Tuple `(radius, Type)` with `radius` and Meeus' `Type` of the smallest circle containing 3 points.
| Meter Named `float` representing a distance or length in `meter`.
| Meter2 Named `float` representing an area in `meter squared`.
| Meter3 Named `float` representing a volume in `meter cubed`.
| Meter_ Named `float` representing a distance or length in `meter`.
| Mgrs Military Grid Reference System (MGRS/NATO) references, with method to convert to UTM coordinates.
| Mgrs4Tuple 4-Tuple `(zone, EN, easting, northing)`, `zone` and grid tile `EN` as `str`, `easting` and `northing` in `meter`.
| Mgrs6Tuple 6-Tuple `(zone, EN, easting, northing, band, datum)`, with `zone`, grid tile `EN` and `band` as `str`, `easting` and `northing` in `meter` and `datum` a Datum.
| NearestOn2Tuple 2-Tuple `(closest, fraction)` of the `closest` point on and `fraction` along a line (segment) between two points.
| NearestOn3Tuple 3-Tuple `(closest, distance, angle)` of the `closest` point on the polygon, either a `LatLon` instance or a LatLon3Tuple`(lat, lon, height)` and the `distance` and `angle` to the `closest` point are in `meter` respectively compass `degrees360`.
| NearestOn4Tuple 4-Tuple `(lat, lon, distance, normal)` with the `lat`- and `lon`gitude of the nearest point, the `distance` in `meter` and the azimuth of the `normal`, perpendicular line.
| NearestOn5Tuple 5-Tuple `(lat, lon, distance, angle, height)` all in `degrees`, except `height`.
| NearestOn6Tuple 6-Tuple `(closest, distance, fi, j, start, end)` with the `closest` point, the `distance` in `meter`, conventionally and the `start` and `end` point of the path or polygon edge.
| NearestOn8Tuple 8-Tuple `(closest, distance, fi, j, start, end, initial, final)`, like NearestOn6Tuple but extended with the `initial` and the `final` bearing at the reference respectively the `closest` point, both in compass `degrees`.
| Ned Local `North-Eeast-Down` (NED) location in a local tangent plane.
| Ned3Tuple DEPRECATED, use class pygeodesy.Ned4Tuple.
| Ned4Tuple 4-Tuple `(north, east, down, ltp)`, all in `meter` except `ltp`.
| Northing Named `float` representing a northing, conventionally in `meter`.
| NumPyError Error raised for `NumPy` issues.
| Number_ Named `int` representing a non-negative number.
| Numpy2LatLon Wrapper for `NumPy` arrays as "on-the-fly" `LatLon` points.
| OSGRError Error raised for a parseOSGR, Osgr or other OSGR issue.
| Orthographic Orthographic projection for the sphere***, see Snyder, pp 148-153 and MathWorld-Wolfram.
| Osgr Ordnance Survey Grid References (OSGR) coordinates on the National Grid.
| PGMError Issue parsing or cropping an `egm*.pgm` geoid dataset.
| ParseError Error parsing degrees, radians or several other formats.
| Phi Named `float` representing a latitude in `radians`.
| PhiLam2Tuple 2-Tuple `(phi, lam)` with latitude `phi` in `radians[PI_2]` and longitude `lam` in `radians[PI]`.
| PhiLam3Tuple 3-Tuple `(phi, lam, height)` with latitude `phi` in `radians[PI_2]`, longitude `lam` in `radians[PI]` and `height` in `meter`.
| PhiLam4Tuple 4-Tuple `(phi, lam, height, datum)` with latitude `phi` in `radians[PI_2]`, longitude `lam` in `radians[PI]`, `height` in `meter` and Datum.
| Phi_ Named `float` representing a latitude in `radians` converted from `degrees`.
| Point3Tuple 3-Tuple `(x, y, ll)` in `meter`, `meter` and `LatLon`.
| Points2Tuple 2-Tuple `(number, points)` with the `number` of points and -possible reduced- `list` or `tuple` of `points`.
| PointsError Error for an insufficient number of points.
| PointsIter Iterator for `points` with optional loop-back and copies.
| PolygonArea For `geographiclib` compatibility, sub-class of GeodesicAreaExact.
| Precision_ Named `int` with optional `low` and `high` limits representing a precision.
| Property
| Property_RO
| Radians Named `float` representing a coordinate in `radians`, optionally clipped.
| Radians2 Named `float` representing a distance in `radians squared`.
| Radians_ Named `float` representing a coordinate in `radians` with optional limits `low` and `high`.
| Radical2Tuple 2-Tuple `(ratio, xline)` of the radical `ratio` and radical `xline`, both `scalar` and `0.0 <= ratio <= 1.0`
| Radii11Tuple 11-Tuple `(rA, rB, rC, cR, rIn, riS, roS, a, b, c, s)` with the `Tangent` circle radii `rA`, `rB` and `rC`, the `circumradius` `cR`, the `Incircle` radius `rIn` aka `inradius`, the inner and outer Soddy circle radii `riS` and `roS` and the sides `a`, `b` and `c` and semi-perimeter `s` of a triangle, all in `meter` conventionally.
| Radius Named `float` representing a radius, conventionally in `meter`.
| Radius_ Named `float` with optional `low` and `high` limits representing a radius, conventionally in `meter`.
| RangeError Error raised for lat- or longitude values outside the `clip`, `clipLat`, `clipLon` or `limit` range in function pygeodesy.clipDegrees, pygeodesy.clipRadians, pygeodesy.parse3llh, pygeodesy.parseDMS, pygeodesy.parseDMS2 or pygeodesy.parseRad.
| RefFrame Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF) parameters.
| ResectionError Error raised for issues in pygeodesy.resections.
| ResidualError Error raised for an operation involving a pygeodesy.sums.Fsum instance with a non-zero `residual`, integer or otherwise.
| Reverse4Tuple 4-Tuple `(lat, lon, convergence, scale)` with `lat`- and `lon`gitude in `degrees`, gamma meridian `convergence` at point in `degrees180` and k `scale` of projection at point `scalar`.
| Rhumb Class to solve of the direct and inverse rhumb problems, accurately.
| Rhumb7Tuple DEPRECATED, use class Rhumb8Tuple ignoring item `a12`.
| Rhumb8Tuple 8-Tuple `(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, azi12, s12, S12, a12)` with lat- `lat1`, `lat2` and longitudes `lon1`, `lon2` of both points, the azimuth of the rhumb line `azi12`, the distance `s12`, the area `S12` under the rhumb line and the angular distance `a12` between both points.
| RhumbError Raised for an Rhumb or RhumbLine issue.
| RhumbLine Compute one or several points on a single rhumb line.
| RhumbLineSolve Wrapper to invoke Karney's RhumbSolve, the `Exact` version of class pygeodesy.RhumbLine.
| RhumbOrder2Tuple 2-Tuple `(RAorder, TMorder)` with a Rhumb Area and Transverse Mercator order, both `int`.
| RhumbSolve Wrapper to invoke Karney's RhumbSolve, the `Exact` version of class pygeodesy.Rhumb.
| RhumbSolve7Tuple 7-Tuple `(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, azi12, s12, S12)` with lat- `lat1`, `lat2` and longitudes `lon1`, `lon2` of both points, the azimuth of the rhumb line `azi12`, the distance `s12` and the area `S12` under the rhumb line between both points.
| Scalar Named `float` representing a factor, fraction, scale, etc.
| Scalar_ Named `float` with optional `low` and `high` limits representing a factor, fraction, scale, etc.
| SciPyError Error raised for `SciPy` issues.
| SciPyWarning Error thrown for `SciPy` warnings.
| Shape2Tuple 2-Tuple `(nrows, ncols)`, the number of rows and columns, both `int`.
| Soddy4Tuple 4-Tuple `(radius, center, deltas, outer)` with `radius` and trilaterated `center` of the inner Soddy circle and the radius of the `outer` Soddy circle.
| Stereographic Stereographic projection for the sphere***, see Snyder, pp 157-160 and MathWorld-Wolfram.
| Str Named, callable `str`.
| Str_ Extended, callable `str` class, not nameable.
| Survey3Tuple 3-Tuple `(PA, PB, PC)` with distance from survey point `P` to each of the triangle corners `A`, `B` and `C` in `meter`, conventionally.
| TRFError Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF), Epoch, RefFrame or RefFrame conversion issue.
| Tienstra7Tuple 7-Tuple `(pointP, A, B, C, a, b, c)` with survey `pointP`, interior triangle angles `A`, `B` and `C` in `degrees` and triangle sides `a`, `b` and `c` in `meter`, conventionally.
| Transform Helmert transformation.
| Transform7Tuple DEPRECATED, use class Helmert7Tuple without keyword arguments.
| TriAngle4Tuple 4-Tuple `(radA, radB, radC, rIn)` with the interior angles at triangle corners `A`, `B` and `C` in `radians` and the `InCircle` radius `rIn` aka `inradius` in `meter`, conventionally.
| TriSide2Tuple 2-Tuple `(a, radA)` with triangle side `a` in `meter`, conventionally and angle `radA` at the opposite triangle corner in `radians`.
| TriSide4Tuple 4-Tuple `(a, b, radC, d)` with interior angle `radC` at triangle corner `C` in `radians`with the length of triangle sides `a` and `b` and with triangle height `d` perpendicular to triangle side `c`, in the same units as triangle sides `a` and `b`.
| Triangle7Tuple 7-Tuple `(A, a, B, b, C, c, area)` with interior angles `A`, `B` and `C` in `degrees`, spherical sides `a`, `b` and `c` in `meter` and the `area` of a spherical triangle in square `meter`.
| Triangle8Tuple 8-Tuple `(A, a, B, b, C, c, D, E)` with interior angles `A`, `B` and `C`, spherical sides `a`, `b` and `c`, spherical deficit `D` and spherical excess `E` of a spherical triangle, all in `radians`.
| TriangleError Error raised for triangle, inter- or resection issues.
| Trilaterate5Tuple 5-Tuple `(min, minPoint, max, maxPoint, n)` with `min` and `max` in `meter`, the corresponding trilaterated `minPoint` and `maxPoint` as `LatLon` and the number `n`.
| Tuple2LatLon Wrapper for tuple sequences as "on-the-fly" `LatLon` points.
| UPSError Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) parse or other Ups issue.
| UTMError Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM parse or other Utm issue.
| UTMUPSError Universal Transverse Mercator/Universal Polar Stereographic (UTM/UPS) parse, validate or other issue.
| UnitError Default exception for units issues.
| Ups Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) coordinate.
| Utm Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate.
| UtmUps2Tuple 2-Tuple `(zone, hemipole)` as `int` and `str`, where `zone` is `1..60` for UTM or `0` for UPS and `hemipole` `'N'|'S'` is the UTM hemisphere or the UPS pole.
| UtmUps4Tuple DEPRECATED and OBSOLETE, expect a UtmUps5Tuple from method `Mgrs.toUtm(utm=None)`.
| UtmUps5Tuple 5-Tuple `(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band)` as `int`, `str`, `meter`, `meter` and `band` letter, where `zone` is `1..60` for UTM or `0` for UPS, `hemipole` `'N'|'S'` is the UTM hemisphere or the UPS pole and `band` is `""` or the longitudinal UTM band `'C'|'D'|..|'W'|'X'` or polar UPS band `'A'|'B'|'Y'|'Z'`.
| UtmUps8Tuple 8-Tuple `(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band, datum, convergence, scale)` as `int`, `str`, `meter`, `meter`, `band` letter, `Datum`, `degrees` and `scalar`, where `zone` is `1..60` for UTM or `0` for UPS, `hemipole` `'N'|'S'` is the UTM hemisphere or the UPS pole and `band` is `""` or the longitudinal UTM band `'C'|'D'|..|'W'|'X'` or polar UPS band `'A'|'B'|'Y'|'Z'`.
| UtmUpsLatLon5Tuple 5-Tuple `(zone, band, hemipole, lat, lon)` as `int`, `str`, `str`, `degrees90` and `degrees180`, where `zone` is `1..60` for UTM or `0` for UPS, `band` is `""` or the longitudinal UTM band `'C'|'D'|..|'W'|'X'` or polar UPS band `'A'|'B'|'Y'|'Z'` and `hemipole` `'N'|'S'` is the UTM hemisphere or the UPS pole.
| Vector2Tuple 2-Tuple `(x, y)` of (geocentric) components, each in `meter` or the same `units`.
| Vector3Tuple 3-Tuple `(x, y, z)` of (geocentric) components, all in `meter` or the same `units`.
| Vector3d Extended 3-D vector.
| Vector4Tuple 4-Tuple `(x, y, z, h)` of (geocentric) components, all in `meter` or the same `units`.
| VectorError Vector3d, `Cartesian*` or `*Nvector` issues.
| WebMercatorError Web Mercator (WM) parser or Wm issue.
| Wm Web Mercator (WM) coordinate.
| Xyz4Tuple 4-Tuple `(x, y, z, ltp)`, all in `meter` except `ltp`.
| XyzLocal Local `(x, y, z)` in a local tangent plane (LTP) and base class for local Enu, Ned and Aer.
| Zone Named `int` representing a UTM/UPS zone number.
| a_f2Tuple 2-Tuple `(a, f)` specifying an ellipsoid by equatorial radius `a` in `meter` and scalar flattening `f`.
| property_RO

Functions
EcefCartesian(*args, **kwds) DEPRECATED, use class LocalCartesian. |
HeightIDW(knots, **kwds) DEPRECATED, use class HeightIDWeuclidean. |
HeightIDW2(knots, **kwds) DEPRECATED, use class HeightIDWequirectangular. |
HeightIDW3(knots, **kwds) DEPRECATED, use class HeightIDWhaversine. |
RefFrameError(*args, **kwds) DEPRECATED, use class TRFError. |
UtmUps(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band='', datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, falsed=True, name='') Class-like function to create a UTM/UPS coordinate. |
a_b2e(a, b) Return `e`, the 1st eccentricity for a given equatorial and polar radius. |
a_b2e2(a, b) Return `e2`, the 1st eccentricity squared for a given equatorial and polar radius. |
a_b2e22(a, b) Return `e22`, the 2nd eccentricity squared for a given equatorial and polar radius. |
a_b2e32(a, b) Return `e32`, the 3rd eccentricity squared for a given equatorial and polar radius. |
a_b2f(a, b) Return `f`, the flattening for a given equatorial and polar radius. |
a_b2f2(a, b) Return `f2`, the 2nd flattening for a given equatorial and polar radius. |
a_b2f_(a, b) Return `f_`, the inverse flattening for a given equatorial and polar radius. |
a_b2n(a, b) Return `n`, the 3rd flattening for a given equatorial and polar radius. |
a_f2b(a, f) Return `b`, the polar radius for a given equatorial radius and flattening. |
a_f_2b(a, f_) Return `b`, the polar radius for a given equatorial radius and inverse flattening. |
acos1(x) Return `math.acos(max(-1, min(1, x)))`. |
acre2ha(acres) Convert acres to hectare. |
acre2m2(acres) Convert acres to square meter. |
anStr(name, OKd=`'``._-``'`, sub='_') DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.anstr. |
anstr(name, OKd=`'``._-``'`, sub='_') Make a valid name of alphanumeric and OKd characters. |
antipode(lat, lon, name='') Return the antipode, the point diametrically opposite to a given point in `degrees`. |
antipode_(phi, lam, name='') Return the antipode, the point diametrically opposite to a given point in `radians`. |
areaOf(points, adjust=True, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=True) Approximate the area of a polygon. |
areaof(points, adjust=True, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=True) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.areaOf. |
asin1(x) Return `math.asin(max(-1, min(1, x)))`. |
atan2b(y, x) Return `atan2(y, x)` in degrees [0..+360]. |
atan2d(y, x, reverse=False) Return `atan2(y, x)` in degrees [-180..+180], optionally reversed (by 180 degrees for `azi2`). |
atand(y_x) Return `atan(y_x)` angle in `degrees`. |
attrs(inst, *names, **Nones_True__pairs_kwds) Get instance attributes as name=value strings, with `float`s formatted by function fstr. |
b_f2a(b, f) Return `a`, the equatorial radius for a given polar radius and flattening. |
b_f_2a(b, f_) Return `a`, the equatorial radius for a given polar radius and inverse flattening. |
bearing(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, **options) Compute the initial or final bearing (forward or reverse azimuth) between a (spherical) start and end point. |
bearingDMS(bearing, form=`'``d``'`, prec=None, sep='', **s_D_M_S) Convert bearing to a string (without compass point suffix). |
bearing_(phi1, lam1, phi2, lam2, final=False, wrap=False) Compute the initial or final bearing (forward or reverse azimuth) between a (spherical) start and end point. |
bounds(points, wrap=True, LatLon=None) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.boundsOf. |
boundsOf(points, wrap=True, LatLon=None) Determine the lower-left SW and upper-right NE corners of a path or polygon. |
callername(up=1, dflt='', source=False, underOK=False) Get the name of the invoking callable. |
cassini(pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, beta, useZ=False, Clas=None, **Clas_kwds) 3-Point resection using Cassini's method. |
cbrt(x) Compute the cube root x**(1/3). |
cbrt2(x) Compute the cube root squared x**(2/3). |
centroidOf(points, wrap=True, LatLon=None) Determine the centroid of a polygon. |
chain2m(chains) Convert UK chains to meter. |
circin6(point1, point2, point3, eps=8.881784197001252e-16, useZ=True) Return the radius and center of the inscribed aka In- circle of a (2- or 3-D) triangle. |
circle4(earth, lat) Get the equatorial or a parallel circle of latitude. |
circum3(point1, point2, point3, circum=True, eps=8.881784197001252e-16, useZ=True) Return the radius and center of the smallest circle through or containing three (2- or 3-D) points. |
circum4_(*points, **Vector_and_kwds) Best-fit a sphere through three or more (3-D) points. |
classname(inst, prefixed=None) Return the instance' class name optionally prefixed with the module name. |
classnaming(prefixed=None) Get/set the default class naming for `[module.]class` names. |
clipCS3(points, lowerleft, upperright, closed=False, inull=False) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.clipCS4. |
clipCS4(points, lowerleft, upperright, closed=False, inull=False) Clip a path against a rectangular clip box using the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm. |
clipDMS(deg, limit) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.clipDegrees. |
clipDegrees(deg, limit) Clip a lat- or longitude to the given range. |
clipLB6(points, lowerleft, upperright, closed=False, inull=False) Clip a path against a rectangular clip box using the Liang-Barsky algorithm. |
clipRadians(rad, limit) Clip a lat- or longitude to the given range. |
clipSH(points, corners, closed=False, inull=False) Clip a polygon against a clip region or box using the Sutherland-Hodgman algorithm. |
clipSH3(points, corners, closed=False, inull=False) Clip a polygon against a clip region or box using the Sutherland-Hodgman algorithm. |
clipStr(bstr, limit=50, white='') DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.clips. |
clips(sb, limit=50, white='') Clip a string to the given length limit. |
collins(pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, beta, **useZ_Clas_and_kwds) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.collins5. |
collins5(pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, beta, useZ=False, Clas=None, **Clas_kwds) 3-Point resection using Collins' method. |
compassAngle(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, adjust=True, wrap=False) Return the angle from North for the direction vector (lon2 - lon1, lat2 - lat1) between two points. |
compassDMS(bearing, form=`'``d``'`, prec=None, sep='', **s_D_M_S) Convert bearing to a string suffixed with compass point. |
compassPoint(bearing, prec=3) Convert bearing to a compass point. |
copysign0(x, y) Like `math.copysign(x, y)` except `zero`, unsigned. |
copytype(x, y) Return the value of x as `type` of `y`. |
cosineAndoyerLambert(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the Andoyer-Lambert correction of the Law of Cosines fromula. |
cosineAndoyerLambert_(phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the Andoyer-Lambert correction of the Law of Cosines fromula. |
cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the Forsythe-Andoyer-Lambert correction of the Law of Cosines formula. |
cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_(phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the Forsythe-Andoyer-Lambert correction of the Law of Cosines formula. |
cosineLaw(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two points using the spherical Law of Cosines formula. |
cosineLaw_(phi2, phi1, lam21) Compute the angular distance between two points using the spherical Law of Cosines formula. |
cot(rad, **error_kwds) Return the `cotangent` of an angle in `radians`. |
cot_(*rads, **error_kwds) Return the `cotangent` of angle(s) in `radiansresection`. |
cotd(deg, **error_kwds) Return the `cotangent` of an angle in `degrees`. |
cotd_(*degs, **error_kwds) Return the `cotangent` of angle(s) in `degrees`. |
crosserrors(raiser=None) Report or ignore vectorial cross product errors. |
date2epoch(year, month, day) Return the reference frame `epoch` for a calendar day. |
decodeEPSG2(arg) DEPRECATED, use function epsg.decode2. |
degDMS(deg, prec=6, s_D=`'``°``'`, s_M=`'``\xe2\x80\xb2``'`, s_S=`'``″``'`, neg='-', pos='') Convert degrees to a string in degrees, minutes or seconds. |
degrees(x) Convert angle x from radians to degrees. |
degrees180(rad) Convert radians to degrees and wrap [-180..+180]. |
degrees2grades(deg) Convert degrees to grades (aka gons or gradians). |
degrees2m(deg, radius=6371008.771415, lat=0) Convert an angle to a distance along the equator or along the parallel at an other (geodetic) latitude. |
degrees360(rad) Convert radians to degrees and wrap [0..+360). |
degrees90(rad) Convert radians to degrees and wrap [-270..+90]. |
deprecated_Property_RO(method) Decorator for a DEPRECATED Property_RO. |
deprecated_class(cls_or_class) Use inside __new__ or __init__ of a DEPRECATED class. |
deprecated_function(call) Decorator for a DEPRECATED function. |
deprecated_method(call) Decorator for a DEPRECATED method. |
deprecated_property_RO(method) Decorator for a DEPRECATED property_RO. |
egmGeoidHeights(GeoidHeights_dat) Generate geoid egm*.pgm height tests from GeoidHeights.dat Test data for Geoids. |
elevation2(lat, lon, timeout=2.0) Get the geoid elevation at an `NAD83` to `NAVD88` location. |
enStr2(easting, northing, prec, *extras) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.enstr2. |
encodeEPSG(zone, hemipole='', band='') DEPRECATED, use function epsg.encode. |
enstr2(easting, northing, prec, *extras, **wide_dot) Return an MGRS/OSGR easting, northing string representations. |
epoch2date(epoch) Return the date for a reference frame `epoch`. |
equidistant(lat0, lon0, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, exact=False, geodsolve=False, name='') Return an EquidistantExact, EquidistantGeodSolve or (if Karney's geographiclib package is installed) an EquidistantKarney, otherwise an Equidistant instance. |
equirectangular(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, **options) Compute the distance between two points using the Equirectangular Approximation / Projection. |
equirectangular3(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, **options) DEPRECATED, use function `equirectangular_`. |
equirectangular_(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, adjust=True, limit=45, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two points using the Equirectangular Approximation / Projection. |
euclid(x, y) Appoximate the norm sqrt(x**2 + y**2) by max(abs(x), abs(y)) + min(abs(x), abs(y)) * 0.4142.... |
euclid_(*xs) Appoximate the norm sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in xs)) by cascaded euclid. |
euclidean(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, adjust=True, wrap=False) Approximate the `Euclidean` distance between two (spherical) points. |
euclidean_(phi2, phi1, lam21, adjust=True) Approximate the angular `Euclidean` distance between two (spherical) points. |
exception_chaining(error=None) Get an error's cause or the exception chaining setting. |
excessAbc(A, b, c) Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) triangle from two sides and the included angle. |
excessGirard(A, B, C) Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) triangle using Girard's formula. |
excessKarney(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) Compute the surface area of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator using Karney's method. |
excessKarney_(phi2, phi1, lam21) Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator using Karney's method. |
excessLHuilier(a, b, c) Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) triangle using L'Huilier's Theorem. |
excessQuad(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) Compute the surface area of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator. |
excessQuad_(phi2, phi1, lam21) Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator. |
f2e2(f) Return `e2`, the 1st eccentricity squared for a given flattening. |
f2e22(f) Return `e22`, the 2nd eccentricity squared for a given flattening. |
f2e32(f) Return `e32`, the 3rd eccentricity squared for a given flattening. |
f2f2(f) Return `f2`, the 2nd flattening for a given flattening. |
f2f_(f) Return `f_`, the inverse flattening for a given flattening. |
f2n(f) Return `n`, the 3rd flattening for a given flattening. |
fStr(floats, prec=6, fmt='f', ints=False, sep=', ') DEPRECATED, use function fstr. |
fStrzs(floatstr) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.fstrzs. |
f_2f(f_) Return `f`, the flattening for a given inverse flattening. |
facos1(x) Fast approximation of pygeodesy.acos1`(x)`. |
false2f(value, name=`'``value``'`, false=True, Error=<type 'exceptions.ValueError'>) DEPRECATED, use function falsed2f. |
falsed2f(falsed=True, Error=<type 'exceptions.ValueError'>, **name_value) DEPRECATED, use class Easting or Northing. |
fasin1(x) Fast approximation of pygeodesy.asin1`(x)`. |
fatan(x) Fast approximation of `atan(x)`. |
fatan1(x) Fast approximation of `atan(x)` for `0 <= x <= 1`, unchecked. |
fatan2(y, x) Fast approximation of `atan2(y, x)`. |
fathom2m(fathoms) Convert Imperial fathom to meter. |
favg(v1, v2, f=0.5) Return the average of two values. |
fdot(a, *b) Return the precision dot product sum(a[i] * b[i] for i=0..len(a)). |
fdot3(a, b, c, start=0) Return the precision dot product start + sum(a[i] * b[i] * c[i] for i=0..len(a)). |
fhorner(x, *cs) Evaluate the polynomial sum(cs[i] * x**i for i=0..len(cs)) using the Horner form. |
fidw(xs, ds, beta=2) Interpolate using using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW). |
flatLocal(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection aka Hubeny formula. |
flatLocal_(phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection aka Hubeny formula. |
flatPolar(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two (spherical) points using the polar coordinate flat-Earth formula. |
flatPolar_(phi2, phi1, lam21) Compute the angular distance between two (spherical) points using the polar coordinate flat-Earth formula. |
float0(*xs) Yield as `xs` as a non-NEG0 `float`. |
float_(*fs, **sets) Get scalars as `float` or intern'ed `float`. |
fmean(xs) Compute the accurate mean sum(xs[i] for i=0..len(xs)) / len(xs). |
fmean_(*xs) Compute the accurate mean sum(xs[i] for i=0..len(xs)) / len(xs). |
fpolynomial(x, *cs, **over) Evaluate the polynomial sum(cs[i] * x**i for i=0..len(cs)) [/ over]. |
fpowers(x, n, alts=0) Return a series of powers [x**i for i=1..n]. |
fprod(xs, start=1) Iterable product, like `math.prod` or `numpy.prod`. |
fractional(points, fi, j=None, wrap=None, LatLon=None, Vector=None, **kwds) Return the point at a given fractional index. |
frange(start, number, step=1) Generate a range of `float`s. |
frechet_(points1, points2, distance=None, units='') Compute the discrete Fréchet distance between two paths given as sets of points. |
value |
freduce(function, sequence, initial=...) Apply a function of two arguments cumulatively to the items of a sequence, from left to right, so as to reduce the sequence to a single value. |
fremainder(x, y) Remainder in range `[-y / 2, y / 2]`. |
fstr(floats, prec=6, fmt='F', ints=False, sep=', ', strepr=None) Convert one or more floats to string, optionally stripped of trailing zero decimals. |
fstrzs(efstr, ap1z=False) Strip trailing zero decimals from a `float` string. |
fsum(xs, floats=False) Precision floating point summation based on or like Python's `math.fsum`. |
fsum1(xs, floats=False) Precision floating point summation of a few values, 1-primed. |
fsum1_(*xs, **floats) Precision floating point summation of a few arguments, 1-primed. |
fsum_(*xs, **floats) Precision floating point summation of all positional arguments. |
ft2m(feet, usurvey=False, pied=False, fuss=False) Convert International, US Survey, French or German `feet` to `meter`. |
furlong2m(furlongs) Convert a furlong to meter. |
geoidHeight2(lat, lon, model=0, timeout=2.0) Get the `NAVD88` geoid height at an `NAD83` location. |
gnomonic(lat0, lon0, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, exact=False, geodsolve=False, name='') Return a GnomonicExact or (if Karney's geographiclib package is installed) a GnomonicKarney, otherwise a Gnomonic instance. |
grades(rad) Convert radians to grades (aka gons or gradians). |
grades2degrees(gon) Convert grades (aka gons or gradians) to `degrees`. |
grades2radians(gon) Convert grades (aka gons or gradians) to `radians`. |
grades400(rad) Convert radians to grades (aka gons or gradians) and wrap [0..+400). |
halfs2(str2) Split a string in 2 halfs. |
hartzell(pov, los=None, earth=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, **LatLon_and_kwds) Compute the intersection of a Line-Of-Sight from a Point-Of-View in space with the surface of the earth. |
hausdorff_(model, target, both=False, early=True, seed=None, units='', distance=None, point=<function _point at 0x7fdc3844b350>) Compute the `directed` or `symmetric` Hausdorff distance between 2 sets of points with or without early breaking and random sampling. |
haversine(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two (spherical) points using the Haversine formula. |
haversine_(phi2, phi1, lam21) Compute the angular distance between two (spherical) points using the Haversine formula. |
heightOf(angle, distance, radius=6371008.771415) Determine the height above the (spherical) earth' surface after traveling along a straight line at a given tilt. |
horizon(height, radius=6371008.771415, refraction=False) Determine the distance to the horizon from a given altitude above the (spherical) earth. |
hstr(height, prec=2, fmt='%+.*f', ints=False, m='') Return a string for the height value. |
hubeny(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection aka Hubeny formula. |
hubeny_(phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection aka Hubeny formula. |
hypot(x, y) Return the Euclidean distance, sqrt(x*x + y*y). |
hypot1(x) Compute the norm sqrt(1 + x**2). |
hypot2(x, y) Compute the squared norm x**2 + y**2. |
hypot2_(*xs) Compute the squared norm `sum(x**2 for x in xs)`. |
hypot3(x, y, z) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.hypot_. |
hypot_(*xs) Compute the norm sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in xs)). |
inStr(inst, *args, **kwds) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.instr. |
instr(inst, *args, **kwds) Return the string representation of an instantiation. |
intersection3d3(start1, end1, start2, end2, eps=2.220446049250313e-16, useZ=True, **Vector_and_kwds) Compute the intersection point of two lines, each defined by two points or by a point and a bearing. |
intersections2(center1, radius1, center2, radius2, sphere=True, **Vector_and_kwds) Compute the intersection of two spheres or circles, each defined by a (3-D) center point and a radius. |
isDEPRECATED(obj) Return `True` if `obj` is a `DEPRECATED` class, method or function, `False` if not or `None` if undetermined. |
isError(obj) Check a (caught) exception. |
isNumpy2(obj) Check for an `Numpy2LatLon` points wrapper. |
isPoints2(obj) Check for an `LatLon2psxy` points wrapper. |
isTuple2(obj) Check for an `Tuple2LatLon` points wrapper. |
isantipode(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, eps=2.220446049250313e-16) Check whether two points are antipodal, on diametrically opposite sides of the earth. |
isantipode_(phi1, lam1, phi2, lam2, eps=2.220446049250313e-16) Check whether two points are antipodal, on diametrically opposite sides of the earth. |
isbool(obj) Check whether an object is `bool`ean. |
isclass(obj) Return `True` if `obj` is a `class` or `type`. |
isclockwise(points, adjust=False, wrap=True) Determine the direction of a path or polygon. |
isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-12, abs_tol=4.930380657631324e-32) Like `math.isclose`, but with defaults such that `isclose(0, EPS0)` is `True` by default. |
iscolinearWith(point, point1, point2, eps=2.220446049250313e-16, useZ=True) Check whether a point is colinear with two other (2- or 3-D) points. |
iscomplex(obj) Check whether an object is `complex`. |
isconvex(points, adjust=False, wrap=True) Determine whether a polygon is convex. |
isconvex_(points, adjust=False, wrap=True) Determine whether a polygon is convex and clockwise. |
isenclosedBy(point, points, wrap=False) Determine whether a point is enclosed by a polygon. |
isenclosedby(point, points, wrap=False) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.isenclosedBy. |
isfinite(obj) Check a finite `scalar` or `complex` value. |
isfloat(obj) Check whether an object is a `float` or float `str`. |
isidentifier(obj) Return `True` if `obj` is a valid Python identifier. |
bool |
isinf(x) Check if float x is infinite (positive or negative). |
isint(obj, both=False) Check for `int` type or an integer `float` value. |
isint0(obj, both=False) Check for INT0 or `int(0)` value. |
iskeyword(x, y) y in x. |
bool |
isnan(x) Check if float x is not a number (NaN). |
isnear0(x, eps0=4.930380657631324e-32) Is `x` near zero within a tolerance? |
isnear1(x, eps1=4.930380657631324e-32) Is `x` near one within a tolerance? |
isnear90(x, eps90=4.930380657631324e-32) Is `x` near one within a tolerance? |
isneg0(x) Check for NEG0, negative `0.0`. |
isninf(x) Check for NINF, negative `INF`. |
isnon0(x, eps0=4.930380657631324e-32) Is `x` non-zero with a tolerance? |
isnormal(lat, lon, eps=0) Check whether `lat` and `lon` are within the normal range in `degrees`. |
isnormal_(phi, lam, eps=0) Check whether `phi` and `lam` are within the normal range in `radians`. |
isodd(x) Is `x` odd? |
ispolar(points, wrap=False) Check whether a polygon encloses a pole. |
isscalar(obj) Check for scalar types. |
issequence(obj, *excls) Check for sequence types. |
isstr(obj) Check for string types. |
issubclassof(Sub, *Supers) Check whether a class is a sub-class of some other class(es). |
istuplist(obj, minum=0) Check for tuple or list types and minumal length. |
itemsorted(adict, *args, **asorted_reverse) Return the items of `adict` sorted alphabetically, case-insensitively and in ascending order. |
iterNumpy2(obj) Iterate over Numpy2 wrappers or other sequences exceeding the threshold. |
iterNumpy2over(n=None) Get or set the iterNumpy2 threshold. |
joined(*words, **sep) DEPRECATED, use `NN(...)`, `NN.join_` or `sep.join`. |
joined_(*words, **sep) DEPRECATED, use `_SPACE_(...)`, `_SPACE_.join_` or `sep.join`, sep=" ". |
latDMS(deg, form=`'``dms``'`, prec=None, sep='', **s_D_M_S) Convert latitude to a string, optionally suffixed with N or S. |
latlon2n_xyz(lat, lon, name='') Convert lat-, longitude to `n-vector` (normal to the earth's surface) X, Y and Z components. |
latlonDMS(lls, **m_form_prec_sep_s_D_M_S) Convert one or more `LatLon` instances to strings. |
latlonDMS_(*lls, **m_form_prec_sep_s_D_M_S) Convert one or more `LatLon` instances to strings. |
len2(items) Make built-in function `len` work for generators, iterators, etc. |
limiterrors(raiser=None) Get/set the throwing of LimitErrors. |
lonDMS(deg, form=`'``dms``'`, prec=None, sep='', **s_D_M_S) Convert longitude to a string, optionally suffixed with E or W. |
luneOf(lon1, lon2, closed=False, LatLon=<class 'pygeodesy.points.LatLon_'>, **LatLon_kwds) Generate an ellipsoidal or spherical lune-shaped path or polygon. |
m2NM(meter) Convert meter to nautical miles (NM). |
m2SM(meter) Convert meter to statute miles (SM). |
m2chain(meter) Convert meter to UK chains. |
m2degrees(distance, radius=6371008.771415, lat=0) Convert a distance to an angle along the equator or along the parallel at an other (geodetic) latitude. |
m2fathom(meter) Convert meter to Imperial fathoms. |
m2ft(meter, usurvey=False, pied=False, fuss=False) Convert meter to International, US Survey, French or or German feet (`ft`). |
m2furlong(meter) Convert meter to furlongs. |
m2km(meter) Convert meter to kilo meter (km). |
m2radians(distance, radius=6371008.771415, lat=0) Convert a distance to an angle along the equator or along the parallel at an other (geodetic) latitude. |
m2toise(meter) Convert meter to French toises. |
m2yard(meter) Convert meter to UK yards. |
machine() Return standard `platform.machine`, but distinguishing Intel native from Intel emulation on Apple Silicon (on macOS only). |
map1(fun1, *xs) Apply each argument to a single-argument function and return a `tuple` of results. |
map2(func, *xs) Apply arguments to a function and return a `tuple` of results. |
meeus2(point1, point2, point3, circum=False, useZ=True) Return the radius and Meeus' Type of the smallest circle through or containing three (2- or 3-D) points. |
modulename(clas, prefixed=None) Return the class name optionally prefixed with the module name. |
n2e2(n) Return `e2`, the 1st eccentricity squared for a given 3rd flattening. |
n2f(n) Return `f`, the flattening for a given 3rd flattening. |
n2f_(n) Return `f_`, the inverse flattening for a given 3rd flattening. |
n_xyz2latlon(x, y, z, name='') Convert `n-vector` components to lat- and longitude in `degrees`. |
n_xyz2philam(x, y, z, name='') Convert `n-vector` components to lat- and longitude in `radians`. |
nameof(inst) Get the name of an instance. |
nearestOn(point, point1, point2, within=True, useZ=True, Vector=None, **Vector_kwds) Locate the point between two points closest to a reference (2- or 3-D). |
nearestOn3(point, points, closed=False, wrap=False, **options) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.nearestOn5. |
nearestOn4(point, points, closed=False, wrap=False, **options) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.nearestOn5. |
nearestOn5(point, points, closed=False, wrap=False, LatLon=None, **options) Locate the point on a path or polygon closest to a reference point. |
nearestOn6(point, points, closed=False, useZ=True, **Vector_and_kwds) Locate the point on a path or polygon closest to a reference point. |
neg(x) Negate `x` unless `zero` or `NEG0`. |
neg_(*xs) Negate all of `xs` with neg. |
norm2(x, y) Normalize a 2-dimensional vector. |
normDMS(strDMS, norm=None, **s_D_M_S) Normalize all degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS) symbols in a string to the default symbols S_DEG, S_MIN, S_SEC. |
norm_(*xs) Normalize all n-dimensional vector components. |
normal(lat, lon, name='') Normalize a lat- and longitude pair in `degrees`. |
normal_(phi, lam, name='') Normalize a lat- and longitude pair in `radians`. |
notImplemented(inst, *args, **kwds) Raise a `NotImplementedError` for a missing method or property. |
notOverloaded(inst, *args, **kwds) Raise an `AssertionError` for a method or property not overloaded. |
opposing(bearing1, bearing2, margin=90.0) Compare the direction of two bearings given in `degrees`. |
opposing_(radians1, radians2, margin=1.5707963267948966) Compare the direction of two bearings given in `radians`. |
pairs(items, prec=6, fmt='F', ints=False, sep='=') Convert items to name=value strings, with `float`s handled like fstr. |
parse3d(str3d, sep=',', Vector=<class 'pygeodesy.vector3d.Vector3d'>, **Vector_kwds) Parse an `"x, y, z"` string. |
parse3llh(strllh, height=0, sep=',', clipLat=90, clipLon=180, **s_D_M_S) Parse a string `"lat, lon [, h]"` representing lat-, longitude in `degrees` and optional height in `meter`. |
parseDDDMMSS(strDDDMMSS, suffix=`'``NSEW``'`, sep='', clip=0, sexagecimal=False) Parse a lat- or longitude represention forms as [D]DDMMSS in degrees. |
parseDMS(strDMS, suffix=`'``NSEW``'`, sep='', clip=0, **s_D_M_S) Parse a lat- or longitude representation in `degrees`. |
parseDMS2(strLat, strLon, sep='', clipLat=90, clipLon=180, **s_D_M_S) Parse a lat- and a longitude representions `"lat, lon"` in `degrees`. |
parseETM5(strUTM, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Etm=<class 'pygeodesy.etm.Etm'>, falsed=True, name='') Parse a string representing a UTM coordinate, consisting of `"zone[band] hemisphere easting northing"`. |
parseMGRS(strMGRS, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Mgrs=<class 'pygeodesy.mgrs.Mgrs'>, name='') Parse a string representing a MGRS grid reference, consisting of `"[zone]Band, EN, easting, northing"`. |
parseOSGR(strOSGR, Osgr=<class 'pygeodesy.osgr.Osgr'>, name='', **Osgr_kwds) Parse a string representing an OS Grid Reference, consisting of `"[GD] easting northing"`. |
parseRad(strRad, suffix=`'``NSEW``'`, clip=0) Parse a string representing angle in `radians`. |
parseUPS5(strUPS, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Ups=<class 'pygeodesy.ups.Ups'>, falsed=True, name='') Parse a string representing a UPS coordinate, consisting of `"[zone][band] pole easting northing"` where `zone` is pseudo zone `"00"|"0"|""` and `band` is `'A'|'B'|'Y'|'Z'|''`. |
parseUTM(strUTM, datum=object(), Utm=object(), name='') DEPRECATED, use function parseUTM5. |
parseUTM5(strUTM, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Utm=<class 'pygeodesy.utm.Utm'>, falsed=True, name='') Parse a string representing a UTM coordinate, consisting of `"zone[band] hemisphere easting northing"`. |
parseUTMUPS5(strUTMUPS, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Utm=<class 'pygeodesy.utm.Utm'>, Ups=<class 'pygeodesy.ups.Ups'>, name='') Parse a string representing a UTM or UPS coordinate, consisting of `"zone[band] hemisphere/pole easting northing"`. |
parseWM(strWM, radius=6378137.0, Wm=<class 'pygeodesy.webmercator.Wm'>, name='') Parse a string `"e n [r]"` representing a WM coordinate, consisting of easting, northing and an optional radius. |
perimeterOf(points, closed=False, adjust=True, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=True) Approximate the perimeter of a path or polygon. |
perimeterof(points, closed=False, adjust=True, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=True) DEPRECATED, use function perimeterOf. |
philam2n_xyz(phi, lam, name='') Convert lat-, longitude to `n-vector` (normal to the earth's surface) X, Y and Z components. |
pierlot(point1, point2, point3, alpha12, alpha23, useZ=False, Clas=None, **Clas_kwds) 3-Point resection using Pierlot's method `ToTal`. |
points2(points, closed=True, base=None, Error=<class 'pygeodesy.errors.PointsError'>) Check a path or polygon represented by points. |
polygon(points, closed=True, base=None) DEPRECATED, use function points2. |
precision(form, prec=None) Set the default precison for a given F_ form. |
print_(*args, **nl_nt_prefix_end_file_flush_sep) Python 3+ `print`-like formatting and printing. |
printf(fmt, *args, **nl_nt_prefix_end_file_flush_sep_kwds) `Printf-style` and Python 3+ `print`-like formatting and printing. |
property_doc_(doc) Decorator for a standard `property` with basic documentation. |
quadOf(latS, lonW, latN, lonE, closed=False, LatLon=<class 'pygeodesy.points.LatLon_'>, **LatLon_kwds) Generate a quadrilateral path or polygon from two points. |
radians(x) Convert angle x from degrees to radians. |
radians2m(rad, radius=6371008.771415, lat=0) Convert an angle to a distance along the equator or along the parallel at an other (geodetic) latitude. |
radiansPI(deg) Convert and wrap degrees to radians [-PI..+PI]. |
radiansPI2(deg) Convert and wrap degrees to radians [0..+2PI). |
radiansPI_2(deg) Convert and wrap degrees to radians [-3PI/2..+PI/2]. |
radical2(distance, radius1, radius2) Compute the radical ratio and radical line of two intersecting circles. |
radii11(point1, point2, point3, useZ=True) Return the radii of the `In-`, Soddy and `Tangent` circles of a (2- or 3-D) triangle. |
randomrangenerator(seed) Return a `seed`ed random range function generator. |
rangerrors(raiser=None) Get/set the throwing of RangeErrors. |
remainder(x, y) Mimick Python 3.7+ `math.remainder`. |
reprs(objs, prec=6, fmt='F', ints=False) Convert objects to `repr` strings, with `float`s handled like fstr. |
scalar(value, low=2.220446049250313e-16, high=1.0, name=`'``scalar``'`, Error=<type 'exceptions.ValueError'>) DEPRECATED, use class Number_ or Scalar_. |
signBit(x) Return `signbit(x)`, like C++. |
signOf(x) Return sign of `x` as `int`. |
simplify1(points, distance=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, indices=False, **options) Basic simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. |
simplify2(points, pipe, radius=6371008.771415, shortest=False, indices=False, **options) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.simplifyRW. |
simplifyRDP(points, distance=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, shortest=False, indices=False, **options) Ramer-Douglas-Peucker (RDP) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. |
simplifyRDPm(points, distance=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, shortest=False, indices=False, **options) Modified Ramer-Douglas-Peucker (RDPm) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. |
simplifyRW(points, pipe=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, shortest=False, indices=False, **options) Reumann-Witkam (RW) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. |
simplifyVW(points, area=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, attr=None, indices=False, **options) Visvalingam-Whyatt (VW) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. |
simplifyVWm(points, area=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, attr=None, indices=False, **options) Modified Visvalingam-Whyatt (VWm) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. |
sincos2(rad) Return the `sine` and `cosine` of an angle in `radians`. |
sincos2_(*rads) Return the `sine` and `cosine` of angle(s) in `radians`. |
sincos2d(deg, **adeg) Return the `sine` and `cosine` of an angle in `degrees`. |
sincos2d_(*degs) Return the `sine` and `cosine` of angle(s) in `degrees`. |
sincostan3(rad) Return the `sine`, `cosine` and `tangent` of an angle in `radians`. |
snellius3(a, b, degC, alpha, beta) Snellius' surveying using Snellius Pothenot. |
soddy4(point1, point2, point3, eps=8.881784197001252e-16, useZ=True) Return the radius and center of the `inner` Soddy circle of a (2- or 3-D) triangle. |
splice(iterable, n=2, **fill) Split an iterable into `n` slices. |
sqrt0(x) Compute the square root iff `x >` EPS02. |
sqrt3(x) Compute the square root, cubed sqrt(x)**3 or sqrt(x**3). |
sqrt_a(h, b) Compute `a` side of a right-angled triangle from `sqrt(h**2 - b**2)`. |
str2ub(x) NOP, pass thru. |
strs(objs, prec=6, fmt='F', ints=False) Convert objects to `str` strings, with `float`s handled like fstr. |
tanPI_2_2(rad) Compute the tangent of half angle, 90 degrees rotated. |
tan_2(rad, **semi) Compute the tangent of half angle. |
tand(deg, **error_kwds) Return the `tangent` of an angle in `degrees`. |
tand_(*degs, **error_kwds) Return the `tangent` of angle(s) in `degrees`. |
thomas(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using Thomas' formula. |
thomas_(phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using Thomas' formula. |
tienstra(pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, **beta_gamma_useZ_Clas_and_kwds) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.tienstra7. |
tienstra7(pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, beta=None, gamma=None, useZ=False, Clas=None, **Clas_kwds) 3-Point resection using Tienstra's formula. |
toCss(latlon, cs0=None, height=None, Css=<class 'pygeodesy.css.Css'>, name='') Convert an (ellipsoidal) geodetic point to a Cassini-Soldner location. |
toDMS(deg, form=`'``dms``'`, prec=2, sep='', ddd=2, neg='-', pos='+', **s_D_M_S) Convert signed `degrees` to string, without suffix. |
toEtm8(latlon, lon=None, datum=None, Etm=<class 'pygeodesy.etm.Etm'>, falsed=True, name='', strict=True, zone=None, **cmoff) Convert a lat-/longitude point to an ETM coordinate. |
toLcc(latlon, conic=Conic(name='WRF_Lb', lat0=40, lon0=-97, par1=33, par2=45, E0=0`...`, height=None, Lcc=<class 'pygeodesy.lcc.Lcc'>, name='', **Lcc_kwds) Convert an (ellipsoidal) geodetic point to a Lambert location. |
toMgrs(utmups, Mgrs=<class 'pygeodesy.mgrs.Mgrs'>, name='', **Mgrs_kwds) Convert a UTM or UPS coordinate to an MGRS grid reference. |
toOsgr(latlon, lon=None, kTM=False, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Osgr=<class 'pygeodesy.osgr.Osgr'>, name='', **prec_Osgr_kwds) Convert a lat-/longitude point to an OSGR coordinate. |
toUps8(latlon, lon=None, datum=None, Ups=<class 'pygeodesy.ups.Ups'>, pole='', falsed=True, strict=True, name='') Convert a lat-/longitude point to a UPS coordinate. |
toUtm(latlon, lon=None, datum=None, Utm=object(), cmoff=True, name='') DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.toUtm8. |
toUtm8(latlon, lon=None, datum=None, Utm=<class 'pygeodesy.utm.Utm'>, falsed=True, name='', strict=True, zone=None, **cmoff) Convert a lat-/longitude point to a UTM coordinate. |
toUtmUps8(latlon, lon=None, datum=None, falsed=True, Utm=<class 'pygeodesy.utm.Utm'>, Ups=<class 'pygeodesy.ups.Ups'>, pole='', name='', **cmoff) Convert a lat-/longitude point to a UTM or UPS coordinate. |
toWm(latlon, lon=None, radius=6378137.0, Wm=<class 'pygeodesy.webmercator.Wm'>, name='', **Wm_kwds) Convert a lat-/longitude point to a WM coordinate. |
toise2m(toises) Convert French toises to meter. |
trfXform(reframe1, reframe2, epoch=None, xform=None, rates=None) Define a new Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF) conversion. |
triAngle(a, b, c) Compute one angle of a triangle. |
triAngle4(a, b, c) Compute the angles of a triangle. |
triSide(a, b, radC) Compute one side of a triangle. |
triSide2(b, c, radB) Compute one side and the opposite angle of a triangle. |
triSide4(radA, radB, c) Compute two sides and the height of a triangle. |
trilaterate2d2(x1, y1, radius1, x2, y2, radius2, x3, y3, radius3, eps=None, **Vector_and_kwds) Trilaterate three circles, each given as a (2-D) center and a radius. |
trilaterate3d2(center1, radius1, center2, radius2, center3, radius3, eps=2.220446049250313e-16, **Vector_and_kwds) Trilaterate three spheres, each given as a (3-D) center and a radius. |
truncate(x, ndigits=None) Truncate to the given number of digits. |
tyr3d(tilt=0, yaw=0, roll=0, Vector=<class 'pygeodesy.vector3d.Vector3d'>, **Vector_kwds) Convert an attitude oriention into a (3-D) direction vector. |
ub2str(x) NOP, pass thru. |
unStr(name, *args, **kwds) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.unstr. |
unroll180(lon1, lon2, wrap=True) Unroll longitudinal delta and wrap longitude in degrees. |
unrollPI(rad1, rad2, wrap=True) Unroll longitudinal delta and wrap longitude in radians. |
unsign0(x) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.unsigned0. |
unsigned0(x) Return `0.0` unsigned. |
unstr(named, *args, **kwds) Return the string representation of an invokation. |
upsZoneBand5(lat, lon, strict=True, name='') Return the UTM/UPS zone number, polar Band letter, pole and clipped lat- and longitude for a given location. |
utmZoneBand2(lat, lon) DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.utmZoneBand5. |
utmZoneBand5(lat, lon, cmoff=False, name='') Return the UTM zone number, Band letter, hemisphere and (clipped) lat- and longitude for a given location. |
utmupsValidate(coord, falsed=False, MGRS=False, Error=<class 'pygeodesy.utmups.UTMUPSError'>) Check a UTM or UPS coordinate. |
utmupsValidateOK(coord, falsed=False, ok=True) Check a UTM or UPS coordinate. |
utmupsZoneBand5(lat, lon, cmoff=False, name='') Return the UTM/UPS zone number, Band letter, hemisphere/pole and clipped lat- and longitude for a given location. |
vincentys(lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) Compute the distance between two (spherical) points using Vincenty's spherical formula. |
vincentys_(phi2, phi1, lam21) Compute the angular distance between two (spherical) points using Vincenty's spherical formula. |
wildberger3(a, b, c, alpha, beta, R3=<built-in function min>) Snellius' surveying using Rational Trigonometry. |
wrap180(deg) Wrap degrees to [-180..+180]. |
wrap360(deg) Wrap degrees to [0..+360). |
wrap90(deg) Wrap degrees to [-270..+90]. |
wrapPI(rad) Wrap radians to [-PI..+PI]. |
wrapPI2(rad) Wrap radians to [0..+2PI). |
wrapPI_2(rad) Wrap radians to [-3PI/2..+PI/2]. |
yard2m(yards) Convert UK yards to meter. |

Variables
| pygeodesy_abspath = ``'``..../PyGe``...`` Fully qualified `pygeodesy` directory name (`str`).
| version = ``'``22.10.1``'`` Normalized `PyGeodesy` version (`str`).
| Caps = `Caps()`
| Conics = `Conics.WRF_Lb: Conic(name='WRF_Lb', lat0=40, lon0=-97`...`` Registered, predefined conics (`enum-like`).
| DIG = `15` System's float decimal digits = 15 (`int`).
| Datums = `Datums.OSGB36: Datum(name='OSGB36', ellipsoid=Ellipso`...`` Registered, predefined datums (`enum-like`).
| DeprecationWarnings = `DeprecationWarnings()`
| EPS = `2.220446049250313e-16` System's epsilon ≈ 2.22044604925e-16 (`float`).
| EPS0 = `4.930380657631324e-32` EPS**2 ≈ 4.9e-32 for near-zero comparison
| EPS02 = `2.4308653429145085e-63` EPS**4 ≈ 2.4e-63 for near-zero squared comparison
| EPS1 = `0.9999999999999998` 1 - EPS ≈ 0.9999999999999998 (`float`).
| EPS1_2 = `0.9999999999999999`
| EPS2 = `4.440892098500626e-16` EPS * 2 ≈ 4.440892098501e-16 (`float`).
| EPS4 = `8.881784197001252e-16` EPS * 4 ≈ 8.881784197001e-16 (`float`).
| EPS_2 = `1.1102230246251565e-16` EPS / 2 ≈ 1.110223024625e-16 (`float`).
| Ellipsoids = `Ellipsoids.Sphere: Ellipsoid(name='Sphere', a=637`...`` Registered, predefined ellipsoids (`enum-like`).
| F_D = ``'``d``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "deg°" with symbol, plus compass point suffix `N, S, E` or `W` (`str`).
| F_D60 = ``'``d60``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "[D]DD.MMSS" `sexagecimal` without symbols, plus suffix (`str`).
| F_D60_ = `'-d60'` Format degrees as signed "-/[D]DD.MMSS" `sexagecimal` without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F_D60__ = `'+d60'` Format degrees as signed "-/+[D]DD.MMSS" `sexagecimal` without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F_DEG = ``'``deg``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "[D]DD" without symbol, plus suffix (`str`).
| F_DEG_ = `'-deg'` Format degrees as signed "-/[D]DD" without symbol, without suffix (`str`).
| F_DEG__ = `'+deg'` Format degrees as signed "-/+[D]DD" without symbol, without suffix (`str`).
| F_DM = ``'``dm``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "deg°min′" with symbols, plus suffix (`str`).
| F_DMS = ``'``dms``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "deg°min′sec″" with symbols, plus suffix (`str`).
| F_DMS_ = `'-dms'` Format degrees as signed "-/deg°min′sec″" with symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F_DMS__ = `'+dms'` Format degrees as signed "-/+deg°min′sec″" with symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F_DM_ = `'-dm'` Format degrees as signed "-/deg°min′" with symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F_DM__ = `'+dm'` Format degrees as signed "-/+deg°min′" with symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F_D_ = `'-d'` Format degrees as signed "-/deg°" with symbol, without suffix (`str`).
| F_D__ = `'+d'` Format degrees as signed "-/+deg°" with symbol, without suffix (`str`).
| F_MIN = ``'``min``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "[D]DDMM" without symbols, plus suffix (`str`).
| F_MIN_ = `'-min'` Format degrees as signed "-/[D]DDMM" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F_MIN__ = `'+min'` Format degrees as signed "-/+[D]DDMM" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F_RAD = ``'``rad``'`` Convert degrees to radians and format as unsigned "RR" with symbol, plus suffix (`str`).
| F_RAD_ = `'-rad'` Convert degrees to radians and format as signed "-/RR" without symbol, without suffix (`str`).
| F_RAD__ = `'+rad'` Convert degrees to radians and format as signed "-/+RR" without symbol, without suffix (`str`).
| F_SEC = ``'``sec``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "[D]DDMMSS" without symbols, plus suffix (`str`).
| F_SEC_ = `'-sec'` Format degrees as signed "-/[D]DDMMSS" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F_SEC__ = `'+sec'` Format degrees as signed "-/+[D]DDMMSS" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F__E = ``'``e``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "%E" without symbols, plus suffix (`str`).
| F__E_ = `'-e'` Format degrees as signed "-/%E" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F__E__ = `'+e'` Format degrees as signed "-/+%E" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F__F = ``'``f``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "%F" without symbols, plus suffix (`str`).
| F__F_ = `'-f'` Format degrees as signed "-/%F" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F__F__ = `'+f'` Format degrees as signed "-/+%F" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F__G = ``'``g``'`` Format degrees as unsigned "%G" without symbols, plus suffix (`str`).
| F__G_ = `'-g'` Format degrees as signed "-/%G" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| F__G__ = `'+g'` Format degrees as signed "-/+%G" without symbols, without suffix (`str`).
| INF = `inf` Infinity (`float`), see functions pygeodesy.isinf and pygeodesy.isfinite and `NINF`.
| INT0 = `0` `int(0)`, missing Z-components, `if z=INT0`, see functions pygeodesy.isint0, pygeodesy.meeus2
| MANTIS = `53`
| MANT_DIG = `53` System's float mantissa bits = 53 (`int`).
| MAX = `1.7976931348623157e+308` System's float max ≈ 1.798e+308 (`float`).
| MIN = `2.2250738585072014e-308` System's float min ≈ 2.225e-308 (`float`).
| NAN = `nan` Not-A-Number (`float`), see function pygeodesy.isnan.
| NEG0 = `-0.0` Negative 0.0 (`float`), see function pygeodesy.isneg0.
| NINF = `-inf` Negative infinity (`float`), see function pygeodesy.isninf and `INF`.
| NN = `''` Empty (`str`), Nomen Nescio.
| OK = `'OK'`
| PI = `3.141592653589793` Constant math.pi (`float`).
| PI2 = `6.283185307179586` Two PI, PI * 2, aka Tau (`float`).
| PI3 = `9.42477796076938` Three PI, PI * 3 (`float`).
| PI3_2 = `4.71238898038469` One and a half PI, PI * 3 / 2 (`float`).
| PI4 = `12.566370614359172` Four PI, PI * 4 (`float`).
| PI_2 = `1.5707963267948966` Half PI, PI / 2 (`float`).
| PI_3 = `1.0471975511965976` One third PI, PI / 3 (`float`).
| PI_4 = `0.7853981633974483` Quarter PI, PI / 4 (`float`).
| R_FM = `6371000.0` Former FAI-Sphere earth radius (`meter`).
| R_GM = `6371230.0` Average earth radius, distance to geoid surface (`meter`)
| R_KM = `6371.0087714149995` Mean (spherical) earth radius (`km`, kilometer).
| R_M = `6371008.771415` Mean (spherical) earth radius (`meter`).
| R_MA = `6378137.0` Equatorial earth radius (`meter`), WGS84, EPSG:3785.
| R_MB = `6356752.3` Polar earth radius (`meter`), WGS84, EPSG:3785.
| R_NM = `3440.06953100162` Mean (spherical) earth radius (`NM`, nautical miles).
| R_QM = `6372797.560856` Earth' (triaxial) quadratic mean radius (`meter`)
| R_SM = `3958.7613160486508` Mean (spherical) earth radius (`SM`, statute miles).
| R_VM = `6366707.0194937` Aviation/Navigation earth radius (`meter`).
| RefFrames = `` Registered, predefined reference frames (`enum-like`).
| S_DEG = ``'``°``'`` Degrees symbol, default `"°"`
| S_DMS = `True` If `True` include, otherwise cancel all DMS symbols, default `True`.
| S_MIN = ``'``\xe2\x80\xb2``'`` Minutes symbol, default `"′"` aka PRIME
| S_RAD = `''` Radians symbol, default `""` aka pygeodesy.NN
| S_SEC = ``'``″``'`` Seconds symbol, default `"″"` aka DOUBLE_PRIME
| S_SEP = `''` Separator between `deg°|min′|sec″|suffix`, default `""` aka pygeodesy.NN
| Transforms = `Transforms.OSGB36: Transform(name='OSGB36', tx=-4`...`` Registered, predefined transforms (`enum-like`).
| isLazy = `None` Lazy import setting (`int` 0, 1, 2 or 3+) from `env` variable `PYGEODESY_LAZY_IMPORT`, or `None` if `lazy import` is not supported or not enabled, or `False` if initializing `lazy import` failed.

Function Details

### UtmUps (zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band='', datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, falsed=True, name='') |
Class-like function to create a UTM/UPS coordinate. Arguments: `zone` - The UTM zone with/-out longitudinal Band or UPS zone `0` or `"00"` with/-out polar Band (`str` or `int`). `hemipole` - UTM hemisphere or UPS top/center of projection (`str`, `'N[orth]'` or `'S[outh]'`). `easting` - Easting, see `falsed` (`meter`). `northing` - Northing, see `falsed` (`meter`). `band` - Optional, UTM latitudinal `'C'|'D'|..|'W'|'X'` or UPS polar Band letter `'A'|'B'|'Y'|'Z'` Band letter (`str`). `datum` - Optional, the coordinate's datum (Datum). `falsed` - Both `easting` and `northing` are falsed (`bool`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: New UTM or UPS instance (Utm or Ups). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. `UTMUPSError` - UTM or UPS validation failed. See Also: Classes Utm and Ups and Karney's UTMUPS.

### a_b2e (a, b) |
Return `e`, the 1st eccentricity for a given equatorial and polar radius. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). Returns: The unsigned, (1st) eccentricity (`float` or `0`), sqrt(1 - (b / a)**2). Note: The result is always non-negative and `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### a_b2e2 (a, b) |
Return `e2`, the 1st eccentricity squared for a given equatorial and polar radius. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). Returns: The signed, (1st) eccentricity squared (`float` or `0`), 1 - (b / a)**2. Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### a_b2e22 (a, b) |
Return `e22`, the 2nd eccentricity squared for a given equatorial and polar radius. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). Returns: The signed, 2nd eccentricity squared (`float` or `0`), (a / b)**2 - 1. Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### a_b2e32 (a, b) |
Return `e32`, the 3rd eccentricity squared for a given equatorial and polar radius. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). Returns: The signed, 3rd eccentricity squared (`float` or `0`), (a**2 - b**2) / (a**2 + b**2). Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### a_b2f (a, b) |
Return `f`, the flattening for a given equatorial and polar radius. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). Returns: The flattening (`float` or `0`), (a - b) / a. Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### a_b2f2 (a, b) |
Return `f2`, the 2nd flattening for a given equatorial and polar radius. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). Returns: The signed, 2nd flattening (`float` or `0`), (a - b) / b. Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### a_b2f_ (a, b) |
Return `f_`, the inverse flattening for a given equatorial and polar radius. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). Returns: The inverse flattening (`float` or `0`), a / (a - b). Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### a_b2n (a, b) |
Return `n`, the 3rd flattening for a given equatorial and polar radius. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). Returns: The signed, 3rd flattening (`float` or `0`), (a - b) / (a + b). Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### a_f2b (a, f) |
Return `b`, the polar radius for a given equatorial radius and flattening. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `f` - Flattening (`scalar` < 1, negative for prolate). Returns: The polar radius (`float`), a * (1 - f).

### a_f_2b (a, f_) |
Return `b`, the polar radius for a given equatorial radius and inverse flattening. Arguments: `a` - Equatorial radius (`scalar` > 0). `f_` - Inverse flattening (`scalar` >>> 1). Returns: The polar radius (`float`), a * (f_ - 1) / f_.

### acre2ha (acres) |
Convert acres to hectare. Arguments: `acres` - Value in acres (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `hectare` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `acres`.

### acre2m2 (acres) |
Convert acres to square meter. Arguments: `acres` - Value in acres (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `meter^2` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `acres`.

### anStr (name, OKd=`'``._-``'`, sub='_') |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.anstr. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### anstr (name, OKd=`'``._-``'`, sub='_') |
Make a valid name of alphanumeric and OKd characters. Arguments: `name` - The original name (`str`). `OKd` - Other acceptable characters (`str`). `sub` - Substitute for invalid charactes (`str`). Returns: The modified name (`str`). Note: Leading and trailing whitespace characters are removed, intermediate whitespace characters are coalesced and substituted.

### antipode (lat, lon, name='') |
Return the antipode, the point diametrically opposite to a given point in `degrees`. Arguments: `lat` - Latitude (`degrees`). `lon` - Longitude (`degrees`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: A LatLon2Tuple`(lat, lon)`. See Also: Functions antipode_ and normal and Geosphere.

### antipode_ (phi, lam, name='') |
Return the antipode, the point diametrically opposite to a given point in `radians`. Arguments: `phi` - Latitude (`radians`). `lam` - Longitude (`radians`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: A PhiLam2Tuple`(phi, lam)`. See Also: Functions antipode and normal_ and Geosphere.

### areaOf (points, adjust=True, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=True) |
Approximate the area of a polygon. Arguments: `points` - The polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `adjust` - Adjust the wrapped, unrolled longitudinal delta by the cosine of the mean latitude (`bool`). `radius` - Mean earth radius (`meter`) or `None`. `wrap` - Wrap lat-, wrap and unroll longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Approximate area (square `meter`, same units as `radius` or `radians` squared if `radius` is `None`). Raises: `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon`. `ValueError` - Invalid `radius`. Note: This area approximation has limited accuracy and is ill-suited for regions exceeding several hundred Km or Miles or with near-polar latitudes. See Also: sphericalNvector.areaOf, sphericalTrigonometry.areaOf, ellipsoidalExact.areaOf and ellipsoidalKarney.areaOf.

### areaof (points, adjust=True, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=True) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.areaOf. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### atan2b (y, x) |
Return `atan2(y, x)` in degrees [0..+360]. See Also: Function pygeodesy.atan2d.

### atan2d (y, x, reverse=False) |
Return `atan2(y, x)` in degrees [-180..+180], optionally reversed (by 180 degrees for `azi2`). See Also: Karney's C++ function Math.atan2d.

### atand (y_x) |
Return `atan(y_x)` angle in `degrees`. See Also: Function pygeodesy.atan2d.

### attrs (inst, *names, **Nones_True__pairs_kwds) |
Get instance attributes as name=value strings, with `float`s formatted by function fstr. Arguments: `inst` - The instance (any `type`). `names` - The attribute names, all other positional (`str`). `Nones_True__pairs_kwds` - Keyword argument for function pairs, except `Nones=True` to in-/exclude missing or `None`-valued attributes. Returns: A `tuple(sep.join(t) for t in zip(names, reprs(values, ...)))` of `str`s.

### b_f2a (b, f) |
Return `a`, the equatorial radius for a given polar radius and flattening. Arguments: `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). `f` - Flattening (`scalar` < 1, negative for prolate). Returns: The equatorial radius (`float`), b / (1 - f).

### b_f_2a (b, f_) |
Return `a`, the equatorial radius for a given polar radius and inverse flattening. Arguments: `b` - Polar radius (`scalar` > 0). `f_` - Inverse flattening (`scalar` >>> 1). Returns: The equatorial radius (`float`), b * f_ / (f_ - 1).

### bearing (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, **options) |
Compute the initial or final bearing (forward or reverse azimuth) between a (spherical) start and end point. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `options` - Optional keyword arguments for function pygeodesy.bearing_. Returns: Initial or final bearing (compass `degrees360`) or zero if start and end point coincide.

### bearingDMS (bearing, form=`'``d``'`, prec=None, sep='', **s_D_M_S) |
Convert bearing to a string (without compass point suffix). Arguments: `bearing` - Bearing from North (compass `degrees360`). `form` - Format specifier for `deg` (`str` or F_D, F_DM, F_DMS, F_DEG, F_MIN, F_SEC, F_D60, F__E, F__F, F__G, F_RAD, F_D_, F_DM_, F_DMS_, F_DEG_, F_MIN_, F_SEC_, F_D60_, F__E_, F__F_, F__G_, F_RAD_, F_D__, F_DM__, F_DMS__, F_DEG__, F_MIN__, F_SEC__, F_D60__, F__E__, F__F__, F__G__ or F_RAD__). `prec` - Number of decimal digits (0..9 or `None` for default). Trailing zero decimals are stripped for `prec` values of 1 and above, but kept for negative `prec`. `sep` - Separator between degrees, minutes, seconds, suffix (`str`). `s_D_M_S` - Optional keyword arguments `s_D=str`, `s_M=str`, `s_S=str` and `s_DMS=True` to override any or cancel all DMS symbols, defaults S_DEG, S_MIN respectively S_SEC. Returns: Compass degrees per the specified `form` (`str`). See Also: Function pygeodesy.toDMS.

### bearing_ (phi1, lam1, phi2, lam2, final=False, wrap=False) |
Compute the initial or final bearing (forward or reverse azimuth) between a (spherical) start and end point. Arguments: `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam1` - Start longitude (`radians`). `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `lam2` - End longitude (`radians`). `final` - Return final bearing if `True`, initial otherwise (`bool`). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unrollPI longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Initial or final bearing (compass `radiansPI2`) or zero if start and end point coincide. See Also: Bearing, Course between two points and Bearing Between Two Points.

### bounds (points, wrap=True, LatLon=None) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.boundsOf. Returns: 2-Tuple `(latlonSW, latlonNE)` as `LatLon` or 4-Tuple `(latS, lonW, latN, lonE)` if `LatLon` is `None`. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### boundsOf (points, wrap=True, LatLon=None) |
Determine the lower-left SW and upper-right NE corners of a path or polygon. Arguments: `points` - The path or polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `wrap` - Wrap lat- and longitudes (`bool`). `LatLon` - Optional class to return the `bounds` corners (`LatLon`) or `None`. Returns: A Bounds2Tuple`(latlonSW, latlonNE)` as `LatLon`s if `LatLon` is `None` a Bounds4Tuple`(latS, lonW, latN, lonE)`. Raises: `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon`. See Also: Function quadOf. Example:
    >>> b = LatLon(45,1), LatLon(45,2), LatLon(46,2), LatLon(46,1)
    >>> boundsOf(b)  # False
    >>> 45.0, 1.0, 46.0, 2.0

### callername (up=1, dflt='', source=False, underOK=False) |
Get the name of the invoking callable. Arguments: `up` - Number of call stack frames up (`int`). `dflt` - Default return value (`any`). `source` - Include source file name and line number (`bool`). `underOK` - Private, internal callables are OK (`bool`). Returns: The callable name (`str`) or `dflt` if none found.

### cassini (pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, beta, useZ=False, Clas=None, **Clas_kwds) |
3-Point resection using Cassini's method. Arguments: `pointA` - First point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `pointB` - Second point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `pointC` - Center point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `alpha` - Angle subtended by triangle side `pointA` to `pointC` (`degrees`, non-negative). `beta` - Angle subtended by triangle side `pointB` to `pointC` (`degrees`, non-negative). `useZ` - If `True`, use and interpolate the Z component, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). `Clas` - Optional class to return the survey point or `None` for `pointA`'s (sub-)class. `Clas_kwds` - Optional additional keyword argument for the survey point instance. Returns: The survey point, an instance of `Clas` or if `Clas is None` of `pointA`'s (sub-)class. Raises: `ResectionError` - Near-coincident, -colinear or -concyclic points or negative or invalid `alpha` or `beta`. `TypeError` - Invalid `pointA`, `pointB` or `pointM`. Note: Typically, `pointC` is between `pointA` and `pointB`. See Also: Three Point Resection Problem and functions pygeodesy.collins5, pygeodesy.pierlot and pygeodesy.tienstra7.

### cbrt (x) |
Compute the cube root x**(1/3). Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). Returns: Cubic root (`float`). See Also: Functions cbrt2 and sqrt3.

### cbrt2 (x) |
Compute the cube root squared x**(2/3). Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). Returns: Cube root squared (`float`). See Also: Functions cbrt and sqrt3.

### centroidOf (points, wrap=True, LatLon=None) |
Determine the centroid of a polygon. Arguments: `points` - The polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `wrap` - Wrap lat-, wrap and unroll longitudes (`bool`). `LatLon` - Optional class to return the centroid (`LatLon`) or `None`. Returns: Centroid (`LatLon`) or a LatLon2Tuple`(lat, lon)` if `LatLon is None`. Raises: `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon`. `ValueError` - The `points` enclose a pole or near-zero area. See Also: Centroid and Paul Bourke's Calculating The Area And Centroid Of A Polygon, 1988.

### chain2m (chains) |
Convert UK chains to meter. Arguments: `chains` - Value in chains (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `meter` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `chains`.

### circin6 (point1, point2, point3, eps=8.881784197001252e-16, useZ=True) |
Return the radius and center of the inscribed aka In- circle of a (2- or 3-D) triangle. Arguments: `point1` - First point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point2` - Second point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point3` - Third point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `eps` - Tolerance for function pygeodesy.trilaterate3d2 if `useZ is True` otherwise pygeodesy.trilaterate2d2. `useZ` - If `True`, use the Z components, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). Returns: Circin6Tuple`(radius, center, deltas, cA, cB, cC)`. The `center` and contact points `cA`, `cB` and `cC`, each an instance of `point1`'s (sub-)class, are co-planar with the three given points. Raises: `ImportError` - Package `numpy` not found, not installed or older than version 1.10 and `useZ is True`. `IntersectionError` - Near-coincident or -colinear points or a trilateration or `numpy` issue. `TypeError` - Invalid `point1`, `point2` or `point3`. See Also: Functions radii11 and circum3, Incircle and Contact Triangle.

### circle4 (earth, lat) |
Get the equatorial or a parallel circle of latitude. Arguments: `earth` - The earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `lat` - Geodetic latitude (`degrees90`, `str`). Returns: A Circle4Tuple`(radius, height, lat, beta)` instance. Raises: `RangeError` - Latitude `lat` outside valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `TypeError` - Invalid `earth`. `ValueError` - `earth` or `lat`.

### circum3 (point1, point2, point3, circum=True, eps=8.881784197001252e-16, useZ=True) |
Return the radius and center of the smallest circle through or containing three (2- or 3-D) points. Arguments: `point1` - First point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `point2` - Second point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `point3` - Third point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `circum` - If `True` return the `circumradius` and `circumcenter` always, ignoring the Meeus' Type I case (`bool`). `eps` - Tolerance for function pygeodesy.trilaterate3d2 if `useZ is True` otherwise pygeodesy.trilaterate2d2. `useZ` - If `True`, use the Z components, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). Returns: A Circum3Tuple`(radius, center, deltas)`. The `center`, an instance of `point1`'s (sub-)class, is co-planar with the three given points. Raises: `ImportError` - Package `numpy` not found, not installed or older than version 1.10 and `useZ is True`. `IntersectionError` - Near-coincident or -colinear points or a trilateration or `numpy` issue. `TypeError` - Invalid `point1`, `point2` or `point3`. See Also: Jean Meeus, "Astronomical Algorithms", 2nd Ed. 1998, page 127ff, circumradius, circumcircle and functions pygeodesy.circum4_ and pygeodesy.meeus2.

### circum4_ (*points, **Vector_and_kwds) |
Best-fit a sphere through three or more (3-D) points. Arguments: `points` - The points (each a `Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, or `Vector4Tuple`). `Vector_and_kwds` - Optional class `Vector=None` to return the center and optional, additional `Vector` keyword arguments, otherwise the first `points`' (sub-)class. Returns: Circum4Tuple`(radius, center, rank, residuals)` with `center` an instance of `points[0]`' (sub-)class or `Vector` if specified. Raises: `ImportError` - Package `numpy` not found, not installed or older than version 1.10. `NumPyError` - Some `numpy` issue. `PointsError` - Too few `points`. `TypeError` - One of the `points` is invalid. See Also: Charles F. Jekel, "Least Squares Sphere Fit", Sep 13, 2015 and Appendix A, numpy.linalg.lstsq, Eberly 6 and functions pygeodesy.circum3 and pygeodesy.meeus2.

### classname (inst, prefixed=None) |
Return the instance' class name optionally prefixed with the module name. Arguments: `inst` - The object (any `type`). `prefixed` - Include the module name (`bool`), see function `classnaming`. Returns: The `inst`'s `[module.]class` name (`str`).

### classnaming (prefixed=None) |
Get/set the default class naming for `[module.]class` names. Arguments: `prefixed` - Include the module name (`bool`). Returns: Previous class naming setting (`bool`).

### clipCS3 (points, lowerleft, upperright, closed=False, inull=False) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.clipCS4. Returns: Yield a ClipCS3Tuple`(start, end, index)` for each edge of the clipped path. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### clipCS4 (points, lowerleft, upperright, closed=False, inull=False) |
Clip a path against a rectangular clip box using the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm. Arguments: `points` - The points (`LatLon`[]). `lowerleft` - Bottom-left corner of the clip box (`LatLon`). `upperright` - Top-right corner of the clip box (`LatLon`). `closed` - Optionally, close the path (`bool`). `inull` - Optionally, retain null edges if inside (`bool`). Returns: Yield a ClipCS4Tuple`(start, end, i, j)` for each edge of the clipped path. Raises: `ClipError` - The `lowerleft` and `upperright` corners specify an invalid clip box. `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points`.

### clipDMS (deg, limit) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.clipDegrees. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### clipDegrees (deg, limit) |
Clip a lat- or longitude to the given range. Arguments: `deg` - Unclipped lat- or longitude (`scalar degrees`). `limit` - Valid `-/+limit` range (`degrees`). Returns: Clipped value (`degrees`). Raises: `RangeError` - If `deg` outside the valid `-/+limit` range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`.

### clipLB6 (points, lowerleft, upperright, closed=False, inull=False) |
Clip a path against a rectangular clip box using the Liang-Barsky algorithm. Arguments: `points` - The points (`LatLon`[]). `lowerleft` - Bottom-left corner of the clip box (`LatLon`). `upperright` - Top-right corner of the clip box (`LatLon`). `closed` - Optionally, close the path (`bool`). `inull` - Optionally, retain null edges if inside (`bool`). Returns: Yield a ClipLB6Tuple`(start, end, i, fi, fj, j)` for each edge of the clipped path. Raises: `ClipError` - The `lowerleft` and `upperright` corners specify an invalid clip box. `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points`. See Also: Liang-Barsky Line Clipping, Liang-Barsky line clipping algorithm and Liang-Barsky algorithm.

### clipRadians (rad, limit) |
Clip a lat- or longitude to the given range. Arguments: `rad` - Unclipped lat- or longitude (`radians`). `limit` - Valid `-/+limit` range (`radians`). Returns: Clipped value (`radians`). Raises: `RangeError` - If `rad` outside the valid `-/+limit` range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`.

### clipSH (points, corners, closed=False, inull=False) |
Clip a polygon against a clip region or box using the Sutherland-Hodgman algorithm. Arguments: `points` - The polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `corners` - Three or more points defining a convex clip region (`LatLon`[]) or two points to specify a rectangular clip box. `closed` - Close the clipped points (`bool`). `inull` - Optionally, include null edges (`bool`). Returns: Yield the clipped points (`LatLon`[]). Raises: `ClipError` - The `corners` specify a polar, zero-area, non-convex or otherwise invalid clip box or region. `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points`.

### clipSH3 (points, corners, closed=False, inull=False) |
Clip a polygon against a clip region or box using the Sutherland-Hodgman algorithm. Arguments: `points` - The polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `corners` - Three or more points defining a convex clip region (`LatLon`[]) or two points to specify a rectangular clip box. `closed` - Close the clipped points (`bool`). `inull` - Optionally, include null edges (`bool`). Returns: Yield a ClipSH3Tuple`(start, end, original)` for each edge of the clipped polygon. Raises: `ClipError` - The `corners` specify a polar, zero-area, non-convex or otherwise invalid clip box or region. `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points`.

### clipStr (bstr, limit=50, white='') |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.clips. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### clips (sb, limit=50, white='') |
Clip a string to the given length limit. Arguments: `sb` - String (`str` or `bytes`). `limit` - Length limit (`int`). `white` - Optionally, replace all whitespace (`str`). Returns: The clipped or unclipped `sb`.

### collins (pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, beta, **useZ_Clas_and_kwds) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.collins5. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### collins5 (pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, beta, useZ=False, Clas=None, **Clas_kwds) |
3-Point resection using Collins' method. Arguments: `pointA` - First point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `pointB` - Second point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `pointC` - Center point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `alpha` - Angle subtended by triangle side `b` from `pointA` to `pointC` (`degrees`, non-negative). `beta` - Angle subtended by triangle side `a` from `pointB` to `pointC` (`degrees`, non-negative). `useZ` - If `True`, use and interpolate the Z component, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). `Clas` - Optional class to return the survey and auxiliary point or `None` for `pointA`'s (sub-)class. `Clas_kwds` - Optional additional keyword argument for the survey and auxiliary point instance. Returns: Collins5Tuple`(pointP, pointH, a, b, c)` with survey `pointP`, auxiliary `pointH`, each an instance of `Clas` or if `Clas is None` of `pointA`'s (sub-)class and triangle sides `a`, `b` and `c` in `meter`, conventionally. Raises: `ResectionError` - Near-coincident, -colinear or -concyclic points or negative or invalid `alpha` or `beta`. `TypeError` - Invalid `pointA`, `pointB` or `pointM`. Note: Typically, `pointC` is between `pointA` and `pointB`. See Also: Collins' methode and functions pygeodesy.cassini, pygeodesy.pierlot and pygeodesy.tienstra7.

### compassAngle (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, adjust=True, wrap=False) |
Return the angle from North for the direction vector (lon2 - lon1, lat2 - lat1) between two points. Suitable only for short, not near-polar vectors up to a few hundred Km or Miles. Use function pygeodesy.bearing for longer vectors. Arguments: `lat1` - From latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - From longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - To latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - To longitude (`degrees`). `adjust` - Adjust the longitudinal delta by the cosine of the mean latitude (`bool`). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Compass angle from North (`degrees360`). Note: Courtesy of Martin Schultz. See Also: Local, flat earth approximation.

### compassDMS (bearing, form=`'``d``'`, prec=None, sep='', **s_D_M_S) |
Convert bearing to a string suffixed with compass point. Arguments: `bearing` - Bearing from North (compass `degrees360`). `form` - Format specifier for `deg` (`str` or F_D, F_DM, F_DMS, F_DEG, F_MIN, F_SEC, F_D60, F__E, F__F, F__G, F_RAD, F_D_, F_DM_, F_DMS_, F_DEG_, F_MIN_, F_SEC_, F_D60_, F__E_, F__F_, F__G_, F_RAD_, F_D__, F_DM__, F_DMS__, F_DEG__, F_MIN__, F_SEC__, F_D60__, F__E__, F__F__, F__G__ or F_RAD__). `prec` - Number of decimal digits (0..9 or `None` for default). Trailing zero decimals are stripped for `prec` values of 1 and above, but kept for negative `prec`. `sep` - Separator between degrees, minutes, seconds, suffix (`str`). `s_D_M_S` - Optional keyword arguments `s_D=str`, `s_M=str` `s_S=str` and `s_DMS=True` to override any or cancel all DMS symbols, defaults S_DEG, S_MIN respectively S_SEC. Returns: Compass degrees and point in the specified form (`str`). See Also: Function pygeodesy.toDMS.

### compassPoint (bearing, prec=3) |
Convert bearing to a compass point. Arguments: `bearing` - Bearing from North (compass `degrees360`). `prec` - Precision, number of compass point characters: 1 for cardinal or basic winds, 2 for intercardinal or ordinal or principal winds, 3 for secondary-intercardinal or half-winds or 4 for quarter-winds). Returns: Compass point (1-, 2-, 3- or 4-letter `str`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `prec`. See Also: Dms.compassPoint and Compass rose. Example:
    >>> p = compassPoint(24, 1)  # 'N'
    >>> p = compassPoint(24, 2)  # 'NE'
    >>> p = compassPoint(24, 3)  # 'NNE'
    >>> p = compassPoint(24)     # 'NNE'
    >>> p = compassPoint(11, 4)  # 'NbE'
    >>> p = compassPoint(30, 4)  # 'NEbN'
    >>> p = compassPoint(11.249)  # 'N'
    >>> p = compassPoint(11.25)   # 'NNE'
    >>> p = compassPoint(-11.25)  # 'N'
    >>> p = compassPoint(348.749) # 'NNW'

### copysign0 (x, y) |
Like `math.copysign(x, y)` except `zero`, unsigned. Returns: `math.copysign(x, y)` if `x` else `type(x)(0)`.

### copytype (x, y) |
Return the value of x as `type` of `y`. Returns: `type(y)(x)`.

### cosineAndoyerLambert (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the Andoyer-Lambert correction of the Law of Cosines fromula. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as the `datum`'s ellipsoid axes or `radians` if `datum` is `None`). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. See Also: Functions cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert, cosineLaw, equirectangular, euclidean, flatLocal/hubeny, flatPolar, haversine, thomas and vincentys and method Ellipsoid.distance2.

### cosineAndoyerLambert_ (phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) |
Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the Andoyer-Lambert correction of the Law of Cosines fromula. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. See Also: Functions cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, cosineLaw_, equirectangular_, euclidean_, flatLocal_/hubeny_, flatPolar_, haversine_, thomas_ and vincentys_ and Geodesy-PHP.

### cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the Forsythe-Andoyer-Lambert correction of the Law of Cosines formula. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as the `datum`'s ellipsoid axes or `radians` if `datum` is `None`). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. See Also: Functions cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineLaw, equirectangular, euclidean, flatLocal/hubeny, flatPolar, haversine, thomas and vincentys and method Ellipsoid.distance2.

### cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_ (phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) |
Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the Forsythe-Andoyer-Lambert correction of the Law of Cosines formula. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. See Also: Functions cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert, cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineLaw_, equirectangular_, euclidean_, flatLocal_/hubeny_, flatPolar_, haversine_, thomas_ and vincentys_ and Geodesy-PHP.

### cosineLaw (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two points using the spherical Law of Cosines formula. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius` or the ellipsoid or datum axes). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. See Also: Functions cosineLaw_, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert, equirectangular, euclidean, flatLocal/hubeny, flatPolar, haversine, thomas and vincentys and method Ellipsoid.distance2. Note: See note at function vincentys_.

### cosineLaw_ (phi2, phi1, lam21) |
Compute the angular distance between two points using the spherical Law of Cosines formula. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). See Also: Functions cosineLaw, cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, equirectangular_, euclidean_, flatLocal_/hubeny_, flatPolar_, haversine_, thomas_ and vincentys_. Note: See note at function vincentys_.

### cot (rad, **error_kwds) |
Return the `cotangent` of an angle in `radians`. Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). `error_kwds` - Error to raise (`ValueError`). Returns: `cot(rad)`. Raises: `ValueError` - pygeodesy.isnear0`(sin(rad)`.

### cot_ (*rads, **error_kwds) |
Return the `cotangent` of angle(s) in `radiansresection`. Arguments: `rads` - One or more angles (`radians`). `error_kwds` - Error to raise (`ValueError`). Returns: Yield the `cot(rad)` for each angle. Raises: `ValueError` - See pygeodesy.cot.

### cotd (deg, **error_kwds) |
Return the `cotangent` of an angle in `degrees`. Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). `error_kwds` - Error to raise (`ValueError`). Returns: `cot(deg)`. Raises: `ValueError` - pygeodesy.isnear0`(sin(deg)`.

### cotd_ (*degs, **error_kwds) |
Return the `cotangent` of angle(s) in `degrees`. Arguments: `degs` - One or more angles (`degrees`). `error_kwds` - Error to raise (`ValueError`). Returns: Yield the `cot(deg)` for each angle. Raises: `ValueError` - See pygeodesy.cotd.

### crosserrors (raiser=None) |
Report or ignore vectorial cross product errors. Arguments: `raiser` - Use `True` to throw or `False` to ignore CrossError exceptions. Use `None` to leave the setting unchanged. Returns: Previous setting (`bool`). See Also: Property `Vector3d[Base].crosserrors`.

### date2epoch (year, month, day) |
Return the reference frame `epoch` for a calendar day. Arguments: `year` - Year of the date (`scalar`). `month` - Month in the `year` (`scalar`, 1..12). `day` - Day in the `month` (`scalar`, 1..31). Returns: Epoch, the fractional year (`float`). Raises: `TRFError` - Invalid `year`, `month` or `day`. Note: Any `year` is considered a leap year, i.e. having 29 days in February.

### decodeEPSG2 (arg) |
DEPRECATED, use function epsg.decode2. Returns: 2-Tuple `(zone, hemipole)` Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### degDMS (deg, prec=6, s_D=`'``°``'`, s_M=`'``\xe2\x80\xb2``'`, s_S=`'``″``'`, neg='-', pos='') |
Convert degrees to a string in degrees, minutes or seconds. Arguments: `deg` - Value in degrees (`scalar degrees`). `prec` - Number of decimal digits (0..9 or `None` for default). Trailing zero decimals are stripped for `prec` values of 1 and above, but kept for negative `prec`. `s_D` - D symbol for degrees (`str`). `s_M` - M symbol for minutes (`str`) or `""`. `s_S` - S symbol for seconds (`str`) or `""`. `neg` - Optional sign for negative (`'-'`). `pos` - Optional sign for positive (`''`). Returns: Either degrees, minutes or seconds (`str`). See Also: Function pygeodesy.toDMS.

### degrees180 (rad) |
Convert radians to degrees and wrap [-180..+180]. Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: Angle, wrapped (`degrees180`).

### degrees2grades (deg) |
Convert degrees to grades (aka gons or gradians). Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). Returns: Angle (`grades`).

### degrees2m (deg, radius=6371008.771415, lat=0) |
Convert an angle to a distance along the equator or along the parallel at an other (geodetic) latitude. Arguments: `deg` - The angle (`degrees`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `lat` - Parallel latitude (`degrees90`, `str`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius` or equatorial and polar radii) or `0.0` for near-polar `lat`. Raises: `RangeError` - Latitude `lat` outside valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. `ValueError` - Invalid `deg`, `radius` or `lat`. See Also: Function radians2m and m2degrees.

### degrees360 (rad) |
Convert radians to degrees and wrap [0..+360). Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: Angle, wrapped (`degrees360`).

### degrees90 (rad) |
Convert radians to degrees and wrap [-270..+90]. Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: Angle, wrapped (`degrees90`).

### deprecated_Property_RO (method) |
Decorator for a DEPRECATED Property_RO. Arguments: `method` - The `Property_RO.fget` method (`callable`). Returns: The `method` DEPRECATED.

### deprecated_class (cls_or_class) |
Use inside __new__ or __init__ of a DEPRECATED class. Arguments: `cls_or_class` - The class (`cls` or `Class`). Note: NOT a decorator!

### deprecated_function (call) |
Decorator for a DEPRECATED function. Arguments: `call` - The deprecated function (`callable`). Returns: The `call` DEPRECATED.

### deprecated_method (call) |
Decorator for a DEPRECATED method. Arguments: `call` - The deprecated method (`callable`). Returns: The `call` DEPRECATED.

### deprecated_property_RO (method) |
Decorator for a DEPRECATED property_RO. Arguments: `method` - The `property_RO.fget` method (`callable`). Returns: The `method` DEPRECATED.

### egmGeoidHeights (GeoidHeights_dat) |
Generate geoid egm*.pgm height tests from GeoidHeights.dat Test data for Geoids. Arguments: `GeoidHeights_dat` - The un-gz-ed `GeoidHeights.dat` file (`str` or `file` handle). Returns: For each test, yield a GeoidHeight5Tuple`(lat, lon, egm84, egm96, egm2008)`. Raises: `GeoidError` - Invalid `GeoidHeights_dat`. Note: Function egmGeoidHeights is used to test the geoids GeoidKarney and GeoidPGM, see PyGeodesy module `test/testGeoids.py`.

### elevation2 (lat, lon, timeout=2.0) |
Get the geoid elevation at an `NAD83` to `NAVD88` location. Arguments: `lat` - Latitude (`degrees`). `lon` - Longitude (`degrees`). `timeout` - Optional, query timeout (seconds). Returns: An Elevation2Tuple`(elevation, data_source)` or (`None, "error"`) in case of errors. Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `timeout`. Note: The returned `elevation` is `None` if `lat` or `lon` is invalid or outside the `Conterminous US (CONUS)`, if conversion failed or if the query timed out. The `"error"` is the `HTTP-, IO-, SSL-` or other `-Error` as a string (`str`). See Also: USGS Elevation Point Query Service, the FAQ, geoid.py, module geoids, classes GeoidG2012B, GeoidKarney and GeoidPGM.

### enStr2 (easting, northing, prec, *extras) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.enstr2. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### encodeEPSG (zone, hemipole='', band='') |
DEPRECATED, use function epsg.encode. Returns: `EPSG` code (`int`). Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### enstr2 (easting, northing, prec, *extras, **wide_dot) |
Return an MGRS/OSGR easting, northing string representations. Arguments: `easting` - Easting from false easting (`meter`). `northing` - Northing from from false northing (`meter`). `prec` - Precision, the number of decimal digits (`int`) or if negative, the number of units to drop, like MGRS PRECISION. `extras` - Optional leading items (`str`s). `wide_dot` - Optional keword argument `wide=5` for the number of unit digits (`int`) and `dot=False` (`bool`) to insert a decimal point. Returns: `extras` + 2-tuple `(str(easting), str(northing))` or + 2-tuple `("", "")` for `prec <= -wide`. Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `easting`, `northing` or `prec`. Note: The `easting` and `northing` values are truncated, not rounded.

### epoch2date (epoch) |
Return the date for a reference frame `epoch`. Arguments: `epoch` - Fractional year (`scalar`). Returns: 3-Tuple `(year, month, day)`. Raises: `TRFError` - Invalid `epoch`. Note: Any `year` is considered a leap year, i.e. having 29 days in February.

### equidistant (lat0, lon0, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, exact=False, geodsolve=False, name='') |
Return an EquidistantExact, EquidistantGeodSolve or (if Karney's geographiclib package is installed) an EquidistantKarney, otherwise an Equidistant instance. Arguments: `lat0` - Latitude of center point (`degrees90`). `lon0` - Longitude of center point (`degrees180`). `datum` - Optional datum or ellipsoid (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple) or scalar earth radius (`meter`). `exact` - Return an EquidistantExact instance. `geodsolve` - Return an EquidistantGeodSolve instance. `name` - Optional name for the projection (`str`). Returns: An EquidistantExact, EquidistantGeodSolve, EquidistantKarney or Equidistant instance. Raises: `AzimuthalError` - Invalid `lat0` or `lon0` or (spherical) `datum`. `GeodesicError` - Issue with GeodesicExact, GeodesicSolve or Karney's wrapped `Geodesic`. `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`.

### equirectangular (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, **options) |
Compute the distance between two points using the Equirectangular Approximation / Projection. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `options` - Optional keyword arguments for function equirectangular_. Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius` or the ellipsoid or datum axes). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. See Also: Function equirectangular_ for more details, the available `options`, errors, restrictions and other, approximate or accurate distance functions.

### equirectangular3 (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, **options) |
DEPRECATED, use function `equirectangular_`. Returns: 3-Tuple `(distance2, delta_lat, delta_lon)`. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### equirectangular_ (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, adjust=True, limit=45, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two points using the Equirectangular Approximation / Projection. This approximation is valid for short distance of several hundred Km or Miles, see the `limit` keyword argument and the LimitError. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `adjust` - Adjust the wrapped, unrolled longitudinal delta by the cosine of the mean latitude (`bool`). `limit` - Optional limit for lat- and longitudinal deltas (`degrees`) or `None` or `0` for unlimited. `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: A Distance4Tuple`(distance2, delta_lat, delta_lon, unroll_lon2)`. Raises: `LimitError` - If the lat- and/or longitudinal delta exceeds the `-limit..+limit` range and pygeodesy.limiterrors set to `True`. See Also: Local, flat earth approximation, functions equirectangular, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert, cosineLaw, euclidean, flatLocal/hubeny, flatPolar, haversine, thomas and vincentys and methods Ellipsoid.distance2, `LatLon.distanceTo*` and `LatLon.equirectangularTo`.

### euclid (x, y) |
Appoximate the norm sqrt(x**2 + y**2) by max(abs(x), abs(y)) + min(abs(x), abs(y)) * 0.4142.... Arguments: `x` - X component (`scalar`). `y` - Y component (`scalar`). Returns: Appoximate norm (`float`). See Also: Function euclid_.

### euclid_ (*xs) |
Appoximate the norm sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in xs)) by cascaded euclid. Arguments: `xs` - X arguments, positional (`scalar`s). Returns: Appoximate norm (`float`). See Also: Function euclid.

### euclidean (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, adjust=True, wrap=False) |
Approximate the `Euclidean` distance between two (spherical) points. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `adjust` - Adjust the longitudinal delta by the cosine of the mean latitude (`bool`). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius` or the ellipsoid or datum axes). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. See Also: Distance between two (spherical) points, functions euclid, euclidean_, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert, cosineLaw, equirectangular, flatLocal/hubeny, flatPolar, haversine, thomas and vincentys and methods Ellipsoid.distance2, `LatLon.distanceTo*` and `LatLon.equirectangularTo`.

### euclidean_ (phi2, phi1, lam21, adjust=True) |
Approximate the angular `Euclidean` distance between two (spherical) points. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). `adjust` - Adjust the longitudinal delta by the cosine of the mean latitude (`bool`). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). See Also: Functions euclid, euclidean, cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, cosineLaw_, equirectangular_, flatLocal_/hubeny_, flatPolar_, haversine_, thomas_ and vincentys_.

### exception_chaining (error=None) |
Get an error's cause or the exception chaining setting. Arguments: `error` - An error instance (`Exception`) or `None`. Returns: If `error is None`, return `True` if exception chaining is enabled for PyGeodesy errors, `False` if turned off and `None` if not available. If `error` is not `None`, return it's error cause or `None`. Note: To enable exception chaining for `pygeodesy` errors, set env var `PYGEODESY_EXCEPTION_CHAINING` to any non-empty value prior to `import pygeodesy`.

### excessAbc (A, b, c) |
Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) triangle from two sides and the included angle. Arguments: `A` - An interior triangle angle (`radians`). `b` - Frist adjacent triangle side (`radians`). `c` - Second adjacent triangle side (`radians`). Returns: Spherical excess (`radians`). Raises: `UnitError` - Invalid `A`, `b` or `c`. See Also: Function excessGirard, excessLHuilier, Spherical trigonometry.

### excessGirard (A, B, C) |
Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) triangle using Girard's formula. Arguments: `A` - First interior triangle angle (`radians`). `B` - Second interior triangle angle (`radians`). `C` - Third interior triangle angle (`radians`). Returns: Spherical excess (`radians`). Raises: `UnitError` - Invalid `A`, `B` or `C`. See Also: Function excessLHuilier, Spherical trigonometry.

### excessKarney (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) |
Compute the surface area of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator using Karney's method. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple) or `None`. `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Surface area, signed (square `meter`, or units of `radius` squared) or spherical excess (`radians`) if `radius` is `None` or `0`. Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. `UnitError` - Invalid `lat2` or `lat1`. `ValueError` - Semi-circular longitudinal delta. See Also: Function excessKarney_ and excessQuad.

### excessKarney_ (phi2, phi1, lam21) |
Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator using Karney's method. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). Returns: Spherical excess, signed (`radians`). Raises: `ValueError` - Semi-circular longitudinal delta `lam21`. See Also: Function excessKarney, Area of a spherical polygon.

### excessLHuilier (a, b, c) |
Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) triangle using L'Huilier's Theorem. Arguments: `a` - First triangle side (`radians`). `b` - Second triangle side (`radians`). `c` - Third triangle side (`radians`). Returns: Spherical excess (`radians`). Raises: `UnitError` - Invalid `a`, `b` or `c`. See Also: Function excessGirard, Spherical trigonometry.

### excessQuad (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) |
Compute the surface area of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple) or `None`. `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Surface area, signed (square `meter`, or units of `radius` squared) or spherical excess (`radians`) if `radius` is `None` or `0`. Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. `UnitError` - Invalid `lat2` or `lat1`. See Also: Function excessQuad_ and excessKarney.

### excessQuad_ (phi2, phi1, lam21) |
Compute the spherical excess `E` of a (spherical) quadrilateral bounded by a segment of a great circle, two meridians and the equator. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). Returns: Spherical excess, signed (`radians`). See Also: Function excessQuad, Spherical trigonometry.

### f2e2 (f) |
Return `e2`, the 1st eccentricity squared for a given flattening. Arguments: `f` - Flattening (`scalar` < 1, negative for prolate). Returns: The signed, (1st) eccentricity squared (`float` < 1), f * (2 - f). Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids. See Also: Eccentricity conversions and Flattening.

### f2e22 (f) |
Return `e22`, the 2nd eccentricity squared for a given flattening. Arguments: `f` - Flattening (`scalar` < 1, negative for prolate). Returns: The signed, 2nd eccentricity squared (`float` > -1 or `INF`), f * (2 - f) / (1 - f)**2. Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids. See Also: Eccentricity conversions.

### f2e32 (f) |
Return `e32`, the 3rd eccentricity squared for a given flattening. Arguments: `f` - Flattening (`scalar` < 1, negative for prolate). Returns: The signed, 3rd eccentricity squared (`float`), f * (2 - f) / (1 + (1 - f)**2). Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids. See Also: Eccentricity conversions.

### f2f2 (f) |
Return `f2`, the 2nd flattening for a given flattening. Arguments: `f` - Flattening (`scalar` < 1, negative for prolate). Returns: The signed, 2nd flattening (`float` or `INF`), f / (1 - f). Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids. See Also: Eccentricity conversions and Flattening.

### f2f_ (f) |
Return `f_`, the inverse flattening for a given flattening. Arguments: `f` - Flattening (`scalar` < 1, negative for prolate). Returns: The inverse flattening (`float` or `0`), 1 / f. Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### f2n (f) |
Return `n`, the 3rd flattening for a given flattening. Arguments: `f` - Flattening (`scalar` < 1, negative for prolate). Returns: The signed, 3rd flattening (-1 <= `float` < 1), f / (2 - f). Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids. See Also: Eccentricity conversions and Flattening.

### fStr (floats, prec=6, fmt='f', ints=False, sep=', ') |
DEPRECATED, use function fstr. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### fStrzs (floatstr) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.fstrzs. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### f_2f (f_) |
Return `f`, the flattening for a given inverse flattening. Arguments: `f_` - Inverse flattening (`scalar` >>> 1). Returns: The flattening (`float` or `0`), 1 / f_. Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids.

### facos1 (x) |
Fast approximation of pygeodesy.acos1`(x)`. See Also: ShaderFastLibs.h.

### false2f (value, name=`'``value``'`, false=True, Error=<type 'exceptions.ValueError'>) |
DEPRECATED, use function falsed2f. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### falsed2f (falsed=True, Error=<type 'exceptions.ValueError'>, **name_value) |
DEPRECATED, use class Easting or Northing. Convert a falsed east-/northing to non-negative `float`. Arguments: `falsed` - Value includes false origin (`bool`). `Error` - Optional, overriding error (`Exception`). `name_value` - One `name=value` pair. Returns: The value (`float`). Decorators: `@deprecated_function` Raises: `Error` - Invalid or negative `name=value`.

### fasin1 (x) |
Fast approximation of pygeodesy.asin1`(x)`. See Also: facos1.

### fatan1 (x) |
Fast approximation of `atan(x)` for `0 <= x <= 1`, unchecked. See Also: ShaderFastLibs.h and Efficient approximations for the arctangent function, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 111, May 2006.

### fatan2 (y, x) |
Fast approximation of `atan2(y, x)`. See Also: fastApproximateAtan(x, y) and fatan1.

### fathom2m (fathoms) |
Convert Imperial fathom to meter. Arguments: `fathoms` - Value in fathoms (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `meter` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `fathoms`. See Also: Function toise2m, Fathom and Klafter.

### favg (v1, v2, f=0.5) |
Return the average of two values. Arguments: `v1` - One value (`scalar`). `v2` - Other value (`scalar`). `f` - Optional fraction (`float`). Returns: v1 + f * (v2 - v1) (`float`).

### fdot (a, *b) |
Return the precision dot product sum(a[i] * b[i] for i=0..len(a)). Arguments: `a` - Iterable, list, tuple, etc. (`scalar`s). `b` - All positional arguments (`scalar`s). Returns: Dot product (`float`). Raises: `LenError` - Unequal `len(a)` and `len(b)`. See Also: Class Fdot and Algorithm 5.10 DotK.

### fdot3 (a, b, c, start=0) |
Return the precision dot product start + sum(a[i] * b[i] * c[i] for i=0..len(a)). Arguments: `a` - Iterable, list, tuple, etc. (`scalar`s). `b` - Iterable, list, tuple, etc. (`scalar`s). `c` - Iterable, list, tuple, etc. (`scalar`s). `start` - Optional bias (`scalar`). Returns: Dot product (`float`). Raises: `LenError` - Unequal `len(a)`, `len(b)` and/or `len(c)`. `OverflowError` - Partial `2sum` overflow.

### fhorner (x, *cs) |
Evaluate the polynomial sum(cs[i] * x**i for i=0..len(cs)) using the Horner form. Arguments: `x` - Polynomial argument (`scalar`). `cs` - Polynomial coeffients (`scalar`s). Returns: Horner value (`float`). Raises: `OverflowError` - Partial `2sum` overflow. `TypeError` - Non-scalar `x`. `ValueError` - No `cs` coefficients or `x` is not finite. See Also: Function fpolynomial and class Fhorner.

### fidw (xs, ds, beta=2) |
Interpolate using using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW). Arguments: `xs` - Known values (`scalar`s). `ds` - Non-negative distances (`scalar`s). `beta` - Inverse distance power (`int`, 0, 1, 2, or 3). Returns: Interpolated value `x` (`float`). Raises: `LenError` - Unequal or zero `len(ds)` and `len(xs)`. `ValueError` - Invalid `beta`, negative `ds` value, weighted `ds` below EPS. Note: Using `beta=0` returns the mean of `xs`.

### flatLocal (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection aka Hubeny formula. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as the `datum`'s ellipsoid axes). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. Note: The meridional and prime_vertical radii of curvature are taken and scaled at the mean of both latitude. See Also: Functions flatLocal_ or hubeny_, cosineLaw, flatPolar, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert, equirectangular, euclidean, haversine, thomas, vincentys, method Ellipsoid.distance2 and local, flat earth approximation.

### flatLocal_ (phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) |
Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection aka Hubeny formula. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. Note: The meridional and prime_vertical radii of curvature are taken and scaled at the mean of both latitude. See Also: Functions flatLocal or hubeny, cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, cosineLaw_, flatPolar_, equirectangular_, euclidean_, haversine_, thomas_ and vincentys_ and local, flat earth approximation.

### flatPolar (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two (spherical) points using the polar coordinate flat-Earth formula. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius` or the ellipsoid or datum axes). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. See Also: Functions flatPolar_, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert,cosineLaw, flatLocal/hubeny, equirectangular, euclidean, haversine, thomas and vincentys.

### flatPolar_ (phi2, phi1, lam21) |
Compute the angular distance between two (spherical) points using the polar coordinate flat-Earth formula. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). See Also: Functions flatPolar, cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, cosineLaw_, equirectangular_, euclidean_, flatLocal_/hubeny_, haversine_, thomas_ and vincentys_.

### float_ (*fs, **sets) |
Get scalars as `float` or intern'ed `float`. Arguments: `fs` - One more values (`scalar`), all positional. `sets` - Use keyword argument `sets=True` to `intern` each `fs`, otherwise don't. Returns: Single `float` if only one `fs` is given, otherwise a tuple of `float`s. Raises: `TypeError` - Some `fs` not `scalar`.

### fmean (xs) |
Compute the accurate mean sum(xs[i] for i=0..len(xs)) / len(xs). Arguments: `xs` - Values (`scalar` or Fsum instances). Returns: Mean value (`float`). Raises: `OverflowError` - Partial `2sum` overflow. `ValueError` - No `xs` values.

### fmean_ (*xs) |
Compute the accurate mean sum(xs[i] for i=0..len(xs)) / len(xs). Arguments: `xs` - Values (`scalar` or Fsum instances). Returns: Mean value (`float`). Raises: `OverflowError` - Partial `2sum` overflow. `ValueError` - No `xs` values.

### fpolynomial (x, *cs, **over) |
Evaluate the polynomial sum(cs[i] * x**i for i=0..len(cs)) [/ over]. Arguments: `x` - Polynomial argument (`scalar`). `cs` - Polynomial coeffients (`scalar`s), all positional. `over` - Optional, final divisor (`scalar` Returns: Polynomial value (`float`). Raises: `OverflowError` - Partial `2sum` overflow. `TypeError` - Non-scalar `x`. `ValueError` - No `cs` coefficients or `x` is not finite. See Also: Function fhorner and class Fpolynomial.

### fpowers (x, n, alts=0) |
Return a series of powers [x**i for i=1..n]. Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). `n` - Highest exponent (`int`). `alts` - Only alternating powers, starting with this exponent (`int`). Returns: Powers of `x` (`float`s or `int`s). Raises: `TypeError` - Non-scalar `x` or `n` not `int`. `ValueError` - Non-finite `x` or non-positive `n`.

### fprod (xs, start=1) |
Iterable product, like `math.prod` or `numpy.prod`. Arguments: `xs` - Terms to be multiplied, an iterable, list, tuple, etc. (`scalar`s). `start` - Initial term, also the value returned for an empty `xs` (`scalar`). Returns: The product (`float`). See Also: NumPy.prod.

### fractional (points, fi, j=None, wrap=None, LatLon=None, Vector=None, **kwds) |
  Return the point at a given fractional index. Arguments: `points` - The points (`LatLon`[], Numpy2LatLon[], Tuple2LatLon[], `Cartesian`[], `Vector3d`[], Vector3Tuple[]). `fi` - The fractional index (FIx, `float` or `int`). `j` - Optionally, index of the other point (`int`). `wrap` - Wrap and unroll longitudes (`bool`) or `None` for backward compatible LatLon2Tuple or `LatLon` with averaged lat- and longitudes. Use `True` or `False` to get the fractional point computed method `points[fi].intermediateTo`. `LatLon` - Optional class to return the intermediate, fractional point (`LatLon`) or `None`. `Vector` - Optional class to return the intermediate, fractional point (`Cartesian`, `Vector3d`) or `None`. `kwds` - Optional, additional `LatLon` or `Vector` keyword arguments, ignored if both `LatLon` and `Vector` are `None`. Returns: A LatLon2Tuple`(lat, lon)` if `wrap`, `LatLon` and `Vector` all are `None`, the defaults. An instance of `LatLon` if not `None` or an instance of `Vector` if not `None`. Otherwise with `wrap` either `True` or `False` and `LatLon` and `Vector` both `None`, an instance of `points`' (sub-)class `intermediateTo` fractional. Summarized as follows:
      >>>  wrap  | LatLon | Vector | returned type/value
      #   -------+--------+--------+--------------+------
      #          |        |        | LatLon2Tuple | favg
      #    None  |  None  |  None  |   or**       |
      #          |        |        | Vector3Tuple | favg
      #    None  | LatLon |  None  | LatLon       | favg
      #    None  |  None  | Vector | Vector       | favg
      #   -------+--------+--------+--------------+------
      #    True  |  None  |  None  | points'      | .iTo
      #    True  | LatLon |  None  | LatLon       | .iTo
      #    True  |  None  | Vector | Vector       | .iTo
      #   -------+--------+--------+--------------+------
      #    False |  None  |  None  | points'      | .iTo
      #    False | LatLon |  None  | LatLon       | .iTo
      #    False |  None  | Vector | Vector       | .iTo
      # _____
      # favg) averaged lat, lon or x, y, z values
      # .iTo) value from points[fi].intermediateTo
      # **) depends on base class of points[fi]
Raises: `IndexError` - Fractional index `fi` invalid or `points` not subscriptable or not closed. `TypeError` - Invalid `LatLon`, `Vector` or `kwds` argument. See Also: Class FIx and method FIx.fractional.

### frange (start, number, step=1) |
Generate a range of `float`s. Arguments: `start` - First value (`float`). `number` - The number of `float`s to generate (`int`). `step` - Increment value (`float`). Returns: A generator (`float`s). See Also: NumPy.prod.

### frechet_ (points1, points2, distance=None, units='') |
Compute the discrete Fréchet distance between two paths given as sets of points. Arguments: `points1` - First set of points (`LatLon`[], Numpy2LatLon[], Tuple2LatLon[] or `other`[]). `points2` - Second set of points (`LatLon`[], Numpy2LatLon[], Tuple2LatLon[] or `other`[]). `distance` - Callable returning the distance between a `points1` and a `points2` point (signature `(point1, point2)`). `units` - Optional, the distance units (`Unit` or `str`). Returns: A Frechet6Tuple`(fd, fi1, fi2, r, n, units)` where `fi1` and `fi2` are type `int` indices into `points1` respectively `points2`. Raises: `FrechetError` - Insufficient number of `points1` or `points2`. `RecursionError` - Recursion depth exceeded, see sys.getrecursionlimit(). `TypeError` - If `distance` is not a callable. Note: Function frechet_ does not support fractional indices for intermediate `points1` and `points2`.

### freduce (function, sequence, initial=...) |
Apply a function of two arguments cumulatively to the items of a sequence, from left to right, so as to reduce the sequence to a single value. For example, reduce(lambda x, y: x+y, [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) calculates ((((1+2)+3)+4)+5). If initial is present, it is placed before the items of the sequence in the calculation, and serves as a default when the sequence is empty. Returns: value

### fremainder (x, y) |
Remainder in range `[-y / 2, y / 2]`. Arguments: `x` - Numerator (`scalar`). `y` - Modulus, denominator (`scalar`). Returns: Remainder (`scalar`, preserving signed 0.0) or `NAN` for any non-finite `x`. Raises: `ValueError` - Infinite or near-zero `y`. See Also: Karney's Math.remainder and Python 3.7+ math.remainder.

### fstr (floats, prec=6, fmt='F', ints=False, sep=', ', strepr=None) |
Convert one or more floats to string, optionally stripped of trailing zero decimals. Arguments: `floats` - Single or a list, sequence, tuple, etc. (`scalar`s). `prec` - The `float` precision, number of decimal digits (0..9). Trailing zero decimals are stripped if `prec` is positive, but kept for negative `prec` values. In addition, trailing decimal zeros are stripped for alternate, form '#'. `fmt` - Optional, `float` format (`str`). `ints` - Optionally, remove the decimal dot for `int` values (`bool`). `sep` - Separator joining the `floats` (`str`). `strepr` - Optional callable to format non-`floats` (typically `repr`, `str`) or `None` to raise a TypeError. Returns: The `sep.join(strs(floats, ...)` joined (`str`) or single `strs((floats,), ...)` (`str`) if `floats` is `scalar`.

### fstrzs (efstr, ap1z=False) |
Strip trailing zero decimals from a `float` string. Arguments: `efstr` - Float with or without exponent (`str`). `ap1z` - Append the decimal point and one zero decimal if the `efstr` is all digits (`bool`). Returns: Float (`str`).

### fsum (xs, floats=False) |
Precision floating point summation based on or like Python's `math.fsum`. Arguments: `xs` - Iterable, list, tuple, etc. of values (`scalar` or Fsum instances). `floats` - Optionally, set `floats=True` iff all `xs` are known to be `float`. Returns: Precision `fsum` (`float`). Raises: `OverflowError` - Partial `2sum` overflow. `TypeError` - Non-scalar `xs` value. `ValueError` - Invalid or non-finite `xs` value. Note: Exceptions and non-finite handling may differ if not based on Python's `math.fsum`. See Also: Class Fsum and methods Fsum.fsum and Fsum.fadd.

### fsum1 (xs, floats=False) |
Precision floating point summation of a few values, 1-primed. Arguments: `xs` - Iterable, list, tuple, etc. of values (`scalar` or Fsum instances). `floats` - Optionally, set `floats=True` iff all `xs` are known to be `float`. Returns: Precision `fsum` (`float`). See Also: Function `fsum`.

### fsum1_ (*xs, **floats) |
Precision floating point summation of a few arguments, 1-primed. Arguments: `xs` - Values to be added (`scalar` or Fsum instances), all positional. `floats` - Optionally, set `floats=True` iff all `xs` are known to be `float`. Returns: Precision `fsum` (`float`). See Also: Function `fsum`

### fsum_ (*xs, **floats) |
Precision floating point summation of all positional arguments. Arguments: `xs` - Values to be added (`scalar` or Fsum instances), all positional. `floats` - Optionally, set `floats=True` iff all `xs` are known to be `float`. Returns: Precision `fsum` (`float`). See Also: Function `fsum`.

### ft2m (feet, usurvey=False, pied=False, fuss=False) |
Convert International, US Survey, French or German `feet` to `meter`. Arguments: `feet` - Value in feet (`scalar`). `usurvey` - Convert US Survey foot if `True` else ... `pied` - Convert French pied-du-Roi if `True` else ... `fuss` - Convert German Fuss if `True`, otherwise International feet to `meter`. Returns: Value in `meter` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `feet`.

### furlong2m (furlongs) |
Convert a furlong to meter. Arguments: `furlongs` - Value in furlongs (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `meter` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `furlongs`.

### geoidHeight2 (lat, lon, model=0, timeout=2.0) |
Get the `NAVD88` geoid height at an `NAD83` location. Arguments: `lat` - Latitude (`degrees`). `lon` - Longitude (`degrees`). `model` - Optional, geoid model ID (`int`). `timeout` - Optional, query timeout (seconds). Returns: An GeoidHeight2Tuple`(height, model_name)` or `(None, "error"`) in case of errors. Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `timeout`. Note: The returned `height` is `None` if `lat` or `lon` is invalid or outside the `Conterminous US (CONUS)`, if the `model` was invalid, if conversion failed or if the query timed out. The `"error"` is the `HTTP-, IO-, SSL-, URL-` or other `-Error` as a string (`str`). See Also: NOAA National Geodetic Survey, Geoid, USGS10mElev.py, module geoids, classes GeoidG2012B, GeoidKarney and GeoidPGM.

### gnomonic (lat0, lon0, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, exact=False, geodsolve=False, name='') |
Return a GnomonicExact or (if Karney's geographiclib package is installed) a GnomonicKarney, otherwise a Gnomonic instance. Arguments: `lat0` - Latitude of center point (`degrees90`). `lon0` - Longitude of center point (`degrees180`). `datum` - Optional datum or ellipsoid (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple) or scalar earth radius (`meter`). `exact` - Return a GnomonicExact instance. `geodsolve` - Return an GnomonicGeodSolve instance. `name` - Optional name for the projection (`str`). Returns: A GnomonicExact, GnomonicGeodSolve, GnomonicKarney or Gnomonic instance. Raises: `AzimuthalError` - Invalid `lat0` or `lon0` or (spherical) `datum`. `GeodesicError` - Issue with GeodesicExact, GeodesicSolve or Karney's wrapped `Geodesic`. `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`.

### grades (rad) |
Convert radians to grades (aka gons or gradians). Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: Angle (`grades`).

### grades2degrees (gon) |
Convert grades (aka gons or gradians) to `degrees`. Arguments: `gon` - Angle (`grades`). Returns: Angle (`degrees`).

### grades2radians (gon) |
Convert grades (aka gons or gradians) to `radians`. Arguments: `gon` - Angle (`grades`). Returns: Angle (`radians`).

### grades400 (rad) |
Convert radians to grades (aka gons or gradians) and wrap [0..+400). Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: Angle, wrapped (`grades`).

### halfs2 (str2) |
Split a string in 2 halfs. Arguments: `str2` - String to split (`str`). Returns: 2-Tuple (_1st, _2nd) half (`str`). Raises: `ValueError` - Zero or odd `len`(`str2`).

### hartzell (pov, los=None, earth=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, **LatLon_and_kwds) |
Compute the intersection of a Line-Of-Sight from a Point-Of-View in space with the surface of the earth. Arguments: `pov` - Point-Of-View outside the earth (`Cartesian`, Ecef9Tuple or Vector3d). `los` - Line-Of-Sight, direction to earth (Vector3d) or `None` to point to the earth' center. `earth` - The earth model (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, a_f2Tuple or `scalar` radius in `meter`). `LatLon_and_kwds` - Optional `LatLon` class for the intersection point plus `LatLon` keyword arguments, include `datum` if different from `earth`. Returns: The earth intersection (Vector3d, `Cartesian type` of `pov` or `LatLon`). Raises: `IntersectionError` - Null `pov` or `los` vector, `pov` is inside the earth or `los` points outside the earth or points in an opposite direction. `TypeError` - Invalid `pov`, `los` or `earth`. See Also: Stephen Hartzell and function pygeodesy.tyr3d for `los`.

### hausdorff_ (model, target, both=False, early=True, seed=None, units='', distance=None, point=<function _point at 0x7fdc3844b350>) |
Compute the `directed` or `symmetric` Hausdorff distance between 2 sets of points with or without early breaking and random sampling. Arguments: `model` - First set of points (`LatLon`[], `Numpy2LatLon`[], `Tuple2LatLon`[] or `other`[]). `target` - Second set of points (`LatLon`[], `Numpy2LatLon`[], `Tuple2LatLon`[] or `other`[]). `both` - Return the `directed` (forward only) or the `symmetric` (combined forward and reverse) `Hausdorff` distance (`bool`). `early` - Enable or disable early breaking (`bool`). `seed` - Random sampling seed (`any`) or `None`, `0` or `False` for no random sampling. `units` - Optional, the distance units (`Unit` or `str`). `distance` - Callable returning the distance between a `model` and `target` point (signature `(point1, point2)`). `point` - Callable returning the `model` or `target` point suitable for `distance` (signature `(point)`). Returns: A Hausdorff6Tuple`(hd, i, j, mn, md, units)`. Raises: `HausdorffError` - Insufficient number of `model` or `target` points. `TypeError` - If `distance` or `point` is not callable.

### haversine (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two (spherical) points using the Haversine formula. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius`). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. See Also: Distance between two (spherical) points, functions cosineLaw, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert, equirectangular, euclidean, flatLocal/hubeny, flatPolar, thomas and vincentys and methods Ellipsoid.distance2, `LatLon.distanceTo*` and `LatLon.equirectangularTo`. Note: See note at function vincentys_.

### haversine_ (phi2, phi1, lam21) |
Compute the angular distance between two (spherical) points using the Haversine formula. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). See Also: Functions haversine, cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, cosineLaw_, equirectangular_, euclidean_, flatLocal_/hubeny_, flatPolar_, thomas_ and vincentys_. Note: See note at function vincentys_.

### heightOf (angle, distance, radius=6371008.771415) |
Determine the height above the (spherical) earth' surface after traveling along a straight line at a given tilt. Arguments: `angle` - Tilt angle above horizontal (`degrees`). `distance` - Distance along the line (`meter` or same units as `radius`). `radius` - Optional mean earth radius (`meter`). Returns: Height (`meter`, same units as `distance` and `radius`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `angle`, `distance` or `radius`. See Also: MultiDop geog_lib.GeogBeamHt (Shapiro et al. 2009, JTECH and Potvin et al. 2012, JTECH).

### horizon (height, radius=6371008.771415, refraction=False) |
Determine the distance to the horizon from a given altitude above the (spherical) earth. Arguments: `height` - Altitude (`meter` or same units as `radius`). `radius` - Optional mean earth radius (`meter`). `refraction` - Consider atmospheric refraction (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as `height` and `radius`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `height` or `radius`. See Also: Distance to horizon.

### hstr (height, prec=2, fmt='%+.*f', ints=False, m='') |
Return a string for the height value. Arguments: `height` - Height value (`float`). `prec` - The `float` precision, number of decimal digits (0..9). Trailing zero decimals are stripped if `prec` is positive, but kept for negative `prec` values. `fmt` - Optional, `float` format (`str`). `ints` - Optionally, remove the decimal dot for `int` values (`bool`). `m` - Optional unit of the height (`str`).

### hubeny (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection aka Hubeny formula. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as the `datum`'s ellipsoid axes). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. Note: The meridional and prime_vertical radii of curvature are taken and scaled at the mean of both latitude. See Also: Functions flatLocal_ or hubeny_, cosineLaw, flatPolar, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert, equirectangular, euclidean, haversine, thomas, vincentys, method Ellipsoid.distance2 and local, flat earth approximation.

### hubeny_ (phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) |
Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using the ellipsoidal Earth to plane projection aka Hubeny formula. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. Note: The meridional and prime_vertical radii of curvature are taken and scaled at the mean of both latitude. See Also: Functions flatLocal or hubeny, cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, cosineLaw_, flatPolar_, equirectangular_, euclidean_, haversine_, thomas_ and vincentys_ and local, flat earth approximation.

### hypot1 (x) |
Compute the norm sqrt(1 + x**2). Arguments: `x` - Argument (`scalar`). Returns: Norm (`float`).

### hypot2 (x, y) |
Compute the squared norm x**2 + y**2. Arguments: `x` - X argument (`scalar`). `y` - Y argument (`scalar`). Returns: `x**2 + y**2` (`float`).

### hypot2_ (*xs) |
Compute the squared norm `sum(x**2 for x in xs)`. Arguments: `xs` - X arguments (`scalar`s), all positional. Returns: Squared norm (`float`). Raises: `OverflowError` - Partial `2sum` overflow. `ValueError` - Invalid or no `xs` value. See Also: Function hypot_.

### hypot3 (x, y, z) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.hypot_. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### hypot_ (*xs) |
Compute the norm sqrt(sum(x**2 for x in xs)). Similar to Python 3.8+ n-dimension math.hypot, but exceptions, `nan` and `infinite` values are handled differently. Arguments: `xs` - X arguments (`scalar`s), all positional. Returns: Norm (`float`). Raises: `OverflowError` - Partial `2sum` overflow. `ValueError` - Invalid or no `xs` values. Note: The Python 3.8+ Euclidian distance math.dist between 2 n-dimensional points p1 and p2 can be computed as hypot_(*((c1 - c2) for c1, c2 in zip(p1, p2))), provided p1 and p2 have the same, non-zero length n.

### inStr (inst, *args, **kwds) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.instr. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### instr (inst, *args, **kwds) |
Return the string representation of an instantiation. Arguments: `inst` - The instance (any `type`). `args` - Optional positional arguments. `kwds` - Optional keyword arguments. Returns: Representation (`str`).

### intersection3d3 (start1, end1, start2, end2, eps=2.220446049250313e-16, useZ=True, **Vector_and_kwds) |
Compute the intersection point of two lines, each defined by two points or by a point and a bearing. Arguments: `start1` - Start point of the first line (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `end1` - End point of the first line (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`) or the bearing at `start1` (compass `degrees`). `start2` - Start point of the second line (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `end2` - End point of the second line (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`) or the bearing at `start2` (Ccompass `degrees`). `eps` - Tolerance for skew line distance and length (`EPS`). `useZ` - If `True`, use the Z components, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). `Vector_and_kwds` - Optional class `Vector=None` to return the intersection points and optional, additional `Vector` keyword arguments, otherwise `start1`'s (sub-)class. Returns: An Intersection3Tuple`(point, outside1, outside2)` with `point` an instance of `Vector` or `start1`'s (sub-)class. Raises: `IntersectionError` - Invalid, skew, non-co-planar or otherwise non-intersecting lines. Note: The `outside` values is `0` for lines specified by point and bearing. See Also: Line-line intersection and line-line distance, skew lines and point-line distance.

### intersections2 (center1, radius1, center2, radius2, sphere=True, **Vector_and_kwds) |
Compute the intersection of two spheres or circles, each defined by a (3-D) center point and a radius. Arguments: `center1` - Center of the first sphere or circle (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `radius1` - Radius of the first sphere or circle (same units as the `center1` coordinates). `center2` - Center of the second sphere or circle (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `radius2` - Radius of the second sphere or circle (same units as the `center1` and `center2` coordinates). `sphere` - If `True` compute the center and radius of the intersection of two spheres. If `False`, ignore the `z`-component and compute the intersection of two circles (`bool`). `Vector_and_kwds` - Optional class `Vector=None` to return the intersection points and optional, additional `Vector` keyword arguments, otherwise `center1`'s (sub-)class. Returns: If `sphere` is `True`, a 2-tuple of the `center` and `radius` of the intersection of the spheres. The `radius` is `0.0` for abutting spheres (and the `center` is aka radical center). If `sphere` is `False`, a 2-tuple with the two intersection points of the circles. For abutting circles, both points are the same instance, aka radical center. Raises: `IntersectionError` - Concentric, invalid or non-intersecting spheres or circles. `TypeError` - Invalid `center1` or `center2`. `UnitError` - Invalid `radius1` or `radius2`. See Also: Sphere-Sphere and Circle-Circle Intersection.

### isError (obj) |
Check a (caught) exception. Arguments: `obj` - The exception C({Exception}). Returns: `True` if `obj` is a `pygeodesy` error, `False` if `obj` is a standard Python error of `None` if neither.

### isNumpy2 (obj) |
Check for an `Numpy2LatLon` points wrapper. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). Returns: `True` if `obj` is an `Numpy2LatLon` instance, `False` otherwise.

### isPoints2 (obj) |
Check for an `LatLon2psxy` points wrapper. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). Returns: `True` if `obj` is an `LatLon2psxy` instance, `False` otherwise.

### isTuple2 (obj) |
Check for an `Tuple2LatLon` points wrapper. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any). Returns: `True` if `obj` is an `Tuple2LatLon` instance, `False` otherwise.

### isantipode (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, eps=2.220446049250313e-16) |
Check whether two points are antipodal, on diametrically opposite sides of the earth. Arguments: `lat1` - Latitude of one point (`degrees`). `lon1` - Longitude of one point (`degrees`). `lat2` - Latitude of the other point (`degrees`). `lon2` - Longitude of the other point (`degrees`). `eps` - Tolerance for near-equality (`degrees`). Returns: `True` if points are antipodal within the `eps` tolerance, `False` otherwise. See Also: Functions isantipode_ and antipode.

### isantipode_ (phi1, lam1, phi2, lam2, eps=2.220446049250313e-16) |
Check whether two points are antipodal, on diametrically opposite sides of the earth. Arguments: `phi1` - Latitude of one point (`radians`). `lam1` - Longitude of one point (`radians`). `phi2` - Latitude of the other point (`radians`). `lam2` - Longitude of the other point (`radians`). `eps` - Tolerance for near-equality (`radians`). Returns: `True` if points are antipodal within the `eps` tolerance, `False` otherwise. See Also: Functions isantipode and antipode_.

### isbool (obj) |
Check whether an object is `bool`ean. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). Returns: `True` if `obj` is `bool`ean, `False` otherwise.

### isclass (obj) |
Return `True` if `obj` is a `class` or `type`. See Also: Python's `inspect.isclass`.

### isclockwise (points, adjust=False, wrap=True) |
Determine the direction of a path or polygon. Arguments: `points` - The path or polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `adjust` - Adjust the wrapped, unrolled longitudinal delta by the cosine of the mean latitude (`bool`). `wrap` - Wrap lat-, wrap and unroll longitudes (`bool`). Returns: `True` if `points` are clockwise, `False` otherwise. Raises: `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon`. `ValueError` - The `points` enclose a pole or zero area. Example:
    >>> f = LatLon(45,1), LatLon(45,2), LatLon(46,2), LatLon(46,1)
    >>> isclockwise(f)  # False
    >>> isclockwise(reversed(f))  # True

### iscolinearWith (point, point1, point2, eps=2.220446049250313e-16, useZ=True) |
Check whether a point is colinear with two other (2- or 3-D) points. Arguments: `point` - The point (Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `point1` - First point (Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `point2` - Second point (Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `eps` - Tolerance (`scalar`), same units as `x`, `y` and `z`. `useZ` - If `True`, use the Z components, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). Returns: `True` if `point` is colinear `point1` and `point2`, `False` otherwise. Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `point`, `point1` or `point2`. See Also: Function nearestOn.

### iscomplex (obj) |
Check whether an object is `complex`. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). Returns: `True` if `obj` is `complex`, `False` otherwise.

### isconvex (points, adjust=False, wrap=True) |
Determine whether a polygon is convex. Arguments: `points` - The polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `adjust` - Adjust the wrapped, unrolled longitudinal delta by the cosine of the mean latitude (`bool`). `wrap` - Wrap lat-, wrap and unroll longitudes (`bool`). Returns: `True` if `points` are convex, `False` otherwise. Raises: `CrossError` - Some `points` are colinear. `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon`. Example:
    >>> t = LatLon(45,1), LatLon(46,1), LatLon(46,2)
    >>> isconvex(t)  # True
    >>> f = LatLon(45,1), LatLon(46,2), LatLon(45,2), LatLon(46,1)
    >>> isconvex(f)  # False

### isconvex_ (points, adjust=False, wrap=True) |
Determine whether a polygon is convex and clockwise. Arguments: `points` - The polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `adjust` - Adjust the wrapped, unrolled longitudinal delta by the cosine of the mean latitude (`bool`). `wrap` - Wrap lat-, wrap and unroll longitudes (`bool`). Returns: `+1` if `points` are convex clockwise, `-1` for convex counter-clockwise `points`, `0` otherwise. Raises: `CrossError` - Some `points` are colinear. `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon`. Example:
    >>> t = LatLon(45,1), LatLon(46,1), LatLon(46,2)
    >>> isconvex_(t)  # +1
    >>> f = LatLon(45,1), LatLon(46,2), LatLon(45,2), LatLon(46,1)
    >>> isconvex_(f)  # 0

### isenclosedBy (point, points, wrap=False) |
Determine whether a point is enclosed by a polygon. Arguments: `point` - The point (`LatLon` or 2-tuple `(lat, lon)`). `points` - The polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `wrap` - Wrap lat-, wrap and unroll longitudes (`bool`). Returns: `True` if `point` is inside the polygon, `False` otherwise. Raises: `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon`. `ValueError` - Invalid `point`, lat- or longitude. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.isconvex, pygeodesy.isenclosedBy and pygeodesy.ispolar especially if the `points` may enclose a pole or wrap around the earth longitudinally, methods sphericalNvector.LatLon.isenclosedBy, sphericalTrigonometry.LatLon.isenclosedBy and MultiDop GeogContainPt (Shapiro et al. 2009, JTECH and Potvin et al. 2012, JTECH).

### isenclosedby (point, points, wrap=False) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.isenclosedBy. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### isfinite (obj) |
Check a finite `scalar` or `complex` value. Arguments: `obj` - Value (`scalar` or `complex`). Returns: `False` if `obj` is `INF`, `NINF` or `NAN`, `True` otherwise. Raises: `TypeError` - Non-scalar and non-complex `obj`.

### isfloat (obj) |
Check whether an object is a `float` or float `str`. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). Returns: `True` if `obj` is a `float`, `False` otherwise.

### isint (obj, both=False) |
Check for `int` type or an integer `float` value. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). `both` - If `true`, check `float` and Fsum type and value (`bool`). Returns: `True` if `obj` is `int` or integer `float` or Fsum, `False` otherwise. Note: Both `isint(True)` and `isint(False)` return `False` (and no longer `True`).

### isint0 (obj, both=False) |
Check for INT0 or `int(0)` value. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). `both` - If `true`, also check `float(0)` (`bool`). Returns: `True` if `obj` is INT0, `int(0)` or `float(0)`, `False` otherwise.

### isnear0 (x, eps0=4.930380657631324e-32) |
Is `x` near zero within a tolerance? Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). `eps0` - Near-zero tolerance (`EPS0`). Returns: `True` if `abs(x) < eps0`, `False` otherwise. See Also: Function isnon0.

### isnear1 (x, eps1=4.930380657631324e-32) |
Is `x` near one within a tolerance? Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). `eps1` - Near-one tolerance (`EPS0`). Returns: `isnear0(x - 1)`. See Also: Function isnear0.

### isnear90 (x, eps90=4.930380657631324e-32) |
Is `x` near one within a tolerance? Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). `eps90` - Near-90 tolerance (`EPS0`). Returns: `isnear0(x - 90)`. See Also: Function isnear0.

### isneg0 (x) |
Check for NEG0, negative `0.0`. Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). Returns: `True` if `x` is `NEG0` or `-0.0`, `False` otherwise.

### isninf (x) |
Check for NINF, negative `INF`. Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). Returns: `True` if `x` is `NINF` or `-inf`, `False` otherwise.

### isnon0 (x, eps0=4.930380657631324e-32) |
Is `x` non-zero with a tolerance? Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). `eps0` - Non-zero tolerance (`EPS0`). Returns: `True` if `abs(x) > eps0`, `False` otherwise. See Also: Function isnear0.

### isnormal (lat, lon, eps=0) |
Check whether `lat` and `lon` are within the normal range in `degrees`. Arguments: `lat` - Latitude (`degrees`). `lon` - Longitude (`degrees`). `eps` - Optional tolerance below `90` and `180 degrees`. Returns: `True` if `(abs(lat) + eps) <= 90` and `(abs(lon) + eps) <= 180`, `False` othwerwise. See Also: Functions isnormal_ and normal.

### isnormal_ (phi, lam, eps=0) |
Check whether `phi` and `lam` are within the normal range in `radians`. Arguments: `phi` - Latitude (`radians`). `lam` - Longitude (`radians`). `eps` - Optional tolerance below `PI/2` and `PI radians`. Returns: `True` if `(abs(phi) + eps) <= PI/2` and `(abs(lam) + eps) <= PI`, `False` othwerwise. See Also: Functions isnormal and normal_.

### isodd (x) |
Is `x` odd? Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). Returns: `True` if `x` is odd, `False` otherwise.

### ispolar (points, wrap=False) |
Check whether a polygon encloses a pole. Arguments: `points` - The polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `wrap` - Wrap and unroll longitudes (`bool`). Returns: `True` if the polygon encloses a pole, `False` otherwise. Raises: `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon` or don't have `bearingTo2`, `initialBearingTo` and `finalBearingTo` methods.

### isscalar (obj) |
Check for scalar types. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). Returns: `True` if `obj` is `scalar`, `False` otherwise.

### issequence (obj, *excls) |
Check for sequence types. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). `excls` - Classes to exclude (`type`), all positional. Returns: `True` if `obj` is a sequence, `False` otherwise. Note: Excluding `tuple` implies excluding `namedtuple`.

### isstr (obj) |
Check for string types. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). Returns: `True` if `obj` is `str`, `False` otherwise.

### issubclassof (Sub, *Supers) |
Check whether a class is a sub-class of some other class(es). Arguments: `Sub` - The sub-class (`class`). `Supers` - One or more C(super) classes (`class`). Returns: `True` if `Sub` is a sub-class of any `Supers`, `False` if not (`bool`) or `None` if `Sub` is not a class or if no `Supers` are given or none of those are a class.

### istuplist (obj, minum=0) |
Check for tuple or list types and minumal length. Arguments: `obj` - The object (any `type`). `minum` - Minimal `len` required C({int}). Returns: `True` if `obj` is `tuple` or `list` with `len` at least `minum`, `False` otherwise.

### itemsorted (adict, *args, **asorted_reverse) |
Return the items of `adict` sorted alphabetically, case-insensitively and in ascending order. Arguments: `args` - Optional argument(s) for method `adict.items(B*{args})`. `asorted_reverse` - Use keyword argument `asorted=False` for case-sensitive sorting and `reverse=True` for results in `descending` order.

### iterNumpy2 (obj) |
Iterate over Numpy2 wrappers or other sequences exceeding the threshold. Arguments: `obj` - Points array, list, sequence, set, etc. (any). Returns: `True` do, `False` don't iterate.

### iterNumpy2over (n=None) |
Get or set the iterNumpy2 threshold. Arguments: `n` - Optional, new threshold (`int`). Returns: Previous threshold (`int`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `n`.

### joined (*words, **sep) |
DEPRECATED, use `NN(...)`, `NN.join_` or `sep.join`. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### joined_ (*words, **sep) |
DEPRECATED, use `_SPACE_(...)`, `_SPACE_.join_` or `sep.join`, sep=" ". Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### latDMS (deg, form=`'``dms``'`, prec=None, sep='', **s_D_M_S) |
Convert latitude to a string, optionally suffixed with N or S. Arguments: `deg` - Latitude to be formatted (`scalar degrees`). `form` - Format specifier for `deg` (`str` or F_D, F_DM, F_DMS, F_DEG, F_MIN, F_SEC, F_D60, F__E, F__F, F__G, F_RAD, F_D_, F_DM_, F_DMS_, F_DEG_, F_MIN_, F_SEC_, F_D60_, F__E_, F__F_, F__G_, F_RAD_, F_D__, F_DM__, F_DMS__, F_DEG__, F_MIN__, F_SEC__, F_D60__, F__E__, F__F__, F__G__ or F_RAD__). `prec` - Number of decimal digits (0..9 or `None` for default). Trailing zero decimals are stripped for `prec` values of 1 and above, but kept for negative `prec`. `sep` - Separator between degrees, minutes, seconds, suffix (`str`). `s_D_M_S` - Optional keyword arguments `s_D=str`, `s_M=str` `s_S=str` and `s_DMS=True` to override any or cancel all DMS symbols, defaults S_DEG, S_MIN respectively S_SEC. Returns: Degrees in the specified form (`str`). See Also: Functions pygeodesy.toDMS and pygeodesy.lonDMS.

### latlon2n_xyz (lat, lon, name='') |
Convert lat-, longitude to `n-vector` (normal to the earth's surface) X, Y and Z components. Arguments: `lat` - Latitude (`degrees`). `lon` - Longitude (`degrees`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: A Vector3Tuple`(x, y, z)`. See Also: Function philam2n_xyz. Note: These are `n-vector` x, y and z components, NOT geocentric ECEF x, y and z coordinates!

### latlonDMS (lls, **m_form_prec_sep_s_D_M_S) |
Convert one or more `LatLon` instances to strings. Arguments: `lls` - Single or list, sequence, tuple, etc. (`LatLon`s). `m_form_prec_sep_s_D_M_S` - Optional `meter`, `format`, `precision`, DEPRECATED `sep`, `s_D`, `s_M`, `s_S` and `s_DMS` keyword arguments, see method `LatLon.toStr` and functions pygeodesy.latDMS and pygeodesy.lonDMS. Returns: A `tuple` of `str`s if `lls` is a list, sequence, tuple, etc. of `LatLon` instances or a single `str` if `lls` is a single `LatLon`. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.latDMS, pygeodesy.latlonDMS_, pygeodesy.lonDMS and pygeodesy.toDMS and method `LatLon.toStr`. Note: Keyword argument `sep=None` to return a `str`ing instead of the `tuple`, has been DEPRECATED, use `sep.join(latlonDMS_(...))`.

### latlonDMS_ (*lls, **m_form_prec_sep_s_D_M_S) |
Convert one or more `LatLon` instances to strings. Arguments: `lls` - The instances, all positional arguments (`LatLon`s). `m_form_prec_sep_s_D_M_S` - Optional `meter`, `format`, `precision`, DEPRECATED `sep`, `s_D`, `s_M`, `s_S` and `s_DMS` keyword arguments, see method `LatLon.toStr` and functions pygeodesy.latDMS and pygeodesy.lonDMS. Returns: A `tuple` of `str`s if 2 or more `LatLon` instances or a single `str` if only a single `LatLon` instance is given in `lls`. See Also: Function pygeodesy.latlonDMS. Note: Keyword argument `sep=None` to return a `str`ing instead of the `tuple`, has been DEPRECATED, use `sep.join(latlonDMS_(...))`.

### len2 (items) |
Make built-in function `len` work for generators, iterators, etc. since those can only be started exactly once. Arguments: `items` - Generator, iterator, list, range, tuple, etc. Returns: 2-Tuple `(n, items)` of the number of items (`int`) and the items (`list` or `tuple`).

### limiterrors (raiser=None) |
Get/set the throwing of LimitErrors. Arguments: `raiser` - Choose `True` to raise or `False` to ignore LimitError exceptions. Use `None` to leave the setting unchanged. Returns: Previous setting (`bool`).

### lonDMS (deg, form=`'``dms``'`, prec=None, sep='', **s_D_M_S) |
Convert longitude to a string, optionally suffixed with E or W. Arguments: `deg` - Longitude to be formatted (`scalar degrees`). `form` - Format specifier for `deg` (`str` or F_D, F_DM, F_DMS, F_DEG, F_MIN, F_SEC, F_D60, F__E, F__F, F__G, F_RAD, F_D_, F_DM_, F_DMS_, F_DEG_, F_MIN_, F_SEC_, F_D60_, F__E_, F__F_, F__G_, F_RAD_, F_D__, F_DM__, F_DMS__, F_DEG__, F_MIN__, F_SEC__, F_D60__, F__E__, F__F__, F__G__ or F_RAD__). `prec` - Number of decimal digits (0..9 or `None` for default). Trailing zero decimals are stripped for `prec` values of 1 and above, but kept for negative `prec`. `sep` - Separator between degrees, minutes, seconds, suffix (`str`). `s_D_M_S` - Optional keyword arguments `s_D=str`, `s_M=str` `s_S=str` and `s_DMS=True` to override any or cancel all DMS symbols, defaults S_DEG, S_MIN respectively S_SEC. Returns: Degrees in the specified form (`str`). See Also: Functions pygeodesy.toDMS and pygeodesy.latDMS.

### luneOf (lon1, lon2, closed=False, LatLon=<class 'pygeodesy.points.LatLon_'>, **LatLon_kwds) |
Generate an ellipsoidal or spherical lune-shaped path or polygon. Arguments: `lon1` - Left longitude (`degrees90`). `lon2` - Right longitude (`degrees90`). `closed` - Optionally, close the path (`bool`). `LatLon` - Class to use (LatLon_). `LatLon_kwds` - Optional, additional `LatLon` keyword arguments. Returns: A tuple of 4 or 5 `LatLon` instances outlining the lune shape. See Also: Latitude-longitude quadrangle.

### m2NM (meter) |
Convert meter to nautical miles (NM). Arguments: `meter` - Value in meter (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `NM` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `meter`.

### m2SM (meter) |
Convert meter to statute miles (SM). Arguments: `meter` - Value in meter (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `SM` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `meter`.

### m2chain (meter) |
Convert meter to UK chains. Arguments: `meter` - Value in meter (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `chains` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `meter`.

### m2degrees (distance, radius=6371008.771415, lat=0) |
Convert a distance to an angle along the equator or along the parallel at an other (geodetic) latitude. Arguments: `distance` - Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, an Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `lat` - Parallel latitude (`degrees90`, `str`). Returns: Angle (`degrees`) or `INF` for near-polar `lat`. Raises: `RangeError` - Latitude `lat` outside valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. `ValueError` - Invalid `distance`, `radius` or `lat`. See Also: Function m2radians and degrees2m.

### m2fathom (meter) |
Convert meter to Imperial fathoms. Arguments: `meter` - Value in meter (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `fathoms` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `meter`. See Also: Function m2toise, Fathom and Klafter.

### m2ft (meter, usurvey=False, pied=False, fuss=False) |
Convert meter to International, US Survey, French or or German feet (`ft`). Arguments: `meter` - Value in meter (`scalar`). `usurvey` - Convert to US Survey foot if `True` else ... `pied` - Convert to French pied-du-Roi if `True` else ... `fuss` - Convert to German Fuss if `True`, otherwise to International foot. Returns: Value in `feet` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `meter`.

### m2furlong (meter) |
Convert meter to furlongs. Arguments: `meter` - Value in meter (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `furlongs` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `meter`.

### m2km (meter) |
Convert meter to kilo meter (km). Arguments: `meter` - Value in meter (`scalar`). Returns: Value in km (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `meter`.

### m2radians (distance, radius=6371008.771415, lat=0) |
Convert a distance to an angle along the equator or along the parallel at an other (geodetic) latitude. Arguments: `distance` - Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, an Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `lat` - Parallel latitude (`degrees90`, `str`). Returns: Angle (`radians`) or `INF` for near-polar `lat`. Raises: `RangeError` - Latitude `lat` outside valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. `ValueError` - Invalid `distance`, `radius` or `lat`. See Also: Function m2degrees and radians2m.

### m2toise (meter) |
Convert meter to French toises. Arguments: `meter` - Value in meter (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `toises` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `meter`. See Also: Function m2fathom.

### m2yard (meter) |
Convert meter to UK yards. Arguments: `meter` - Value in meter (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `yards` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `meter`.

### machine() |
Return standard `platform.machine`, but distinguishing Intel native from Intel emulation on Apple Silicon (on macOS only). Returns: Machine `'arm64'` for Apple Silicon native, `'x86_64'` for Intel native, `"arm64_x86_64"` for Intel emulation, etc. (`str` with `comma`s replaced by `underscore`s).

### map1 (fun1, *xs) |
Apply each argument to a single-argument function and return a `tuple` of results. Arguments: `fun1` - 1-Arg function to apply (`callable`). `xs` - Arguments to apply (`any positional`). Returns: Function results (`tuple`).

### map2 (func, *xs) |
Apply arguments to a function and return a `tuple` of results. Unlike Python 2's built-in `map`, Python 3+ `map` returns a `map` object, an iterator-like object which generates the results only once. Converting the `map` object to a tuple maintains the Python 2 behavior. Arguments: `func` - Function to apply (`callable`). `xs` - Arguments to apply (`list, tuple, ...`). Returns: Function results (`tuple`).

### meeus2 (point1, point2, point3, circum=False, useZ=True) |
Return the radius and Meeus' Type of the smallest circle through or containing three (2- or 3-D) points. Arguments: `point1` - First point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point2` - Second point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point3` - Third point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `circum` - If `True` return the non-zero `circumradius` always, ignoring the Meeus' Type I case (`bool`). `useZ` - If `True`, use the Z components, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). Returns: Meeus2Tuple`(radius, Type)`. Raises: `IntersectionError` - Near-coincident or -colinear points, iff `circum=True`. `TypeError` - Invalid `point1`, `point2` or `point3`. See Also: Jean Meeus, "Astronomical Algorithms", 2nd Ed. 1998, page 127ff, circumradius, circumcircle and functions pygeodesy.circum3 and pygeodesy.circum4_.

### modulename (clas, prefixed=None) |
Return the class name optionally prefixed with the module name. Arguments: `clas` - The class (any `class`). `prefixed` - Include the module name (`bool`), see function `classnaming`. Returns: The `class`'s `[module.]class` name (`str`).

### n2e2 (n) |
Return `e2`, the 1st eccentricity squared for a given 3rd flattening. Arguments: `n` - The 3rd flattening (-1 <= `scalar` < 1). Returns: The signed, (1st) eccentricity squared (`float` or NINF), 4 * n / (1 + n)**2. Note: The result is positive for oblate, negative for prolate or `0` for near-spherical ellipsoids. See Also: Flattening.

### n2f (n) |
Return `f`, the flattening for a given 3rd flattening. Arguments: `n` - The 3rd flattening (-1 <= `scalar` < 1). Returns: The flattening (`float` or NINF), 2 * n / (1 + n). See Also: Eccentricity conversions and Flattening.

### n2f_ (n) |
Return `f_`, the inverse flattening for a given 3rd flattening. Arguments: `n` - The 3rd flattening (-1 <= `scalar` < 1). Returns: The inverse flattening (`float` or `0`), 1 / f. See Also: n2f and f2f_.

### n_xyz2latlon (x, y, z, name='') |
Convert `n-vector` components to lat- and longitude in `degrees`. Arguments: `x` - X component (`scalar`). `y` - Y component (`scalar`). `z` - Z component (`scalar`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: A LatLon2Tuple`(lat, lon)`. See Also: Function n_xyz2philam.

### n_xyz2philam (x, y, z, name='') |
Convert `n-vector` components to lat- and longitude in `radians`. Arguments: `x` - X component (`scalar`). `y` - Y component (`scalar`). `z` - Z component (`scalar`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: A PhiLam2Tuple`(phi, lam)`. See Also: Function n_xyz2latlon.

### nameof (inst) |
Get the name of an instance. Arguments: `inst` - The object (any `type`). Returns: The instance' name (`str`) or `""`.

### nearestOn (point, point1, point2, within=True, useZ=True, Vector=None, **Vector_kwds) |
Locate the point between two points closest to a reference (2- or 3-D). Arguments: `point` - Reference point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `point1` - Start point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `point2` - End point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `within` - If `True` return the closest point between both given points, otherwise the closest point on the extended line through both points (`bool`). `useZ` - If `True`, use the Z components, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). `Vector` - Class to return closest point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d or `Vector3Tuple`) or `None`. `Vector_kwds` - Optional, additional `Vector` keyword arguments, ignored if `Vector is None`. Returns: Closest point, either `point1` or `point2` or an instance of the `point`'s (sub-)class or `Vector` if not `None`. Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `point`, `point1` or `point2`. See Also: 3-D Point-Line Distance, `Cartesian` and `LatLon` methods `nearestOn`, method sphericalTrigonometry.LatLon.nearestOn3 and function sphericalTrigonometry.nearestOn3.

### nearestOn3 (point, points, closed=False, wrap=False, **options) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.nearestOn5. Returns: 3-Tuple `(lat, lon, distance)` Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### nearestOn4 (point, points, closed=False, wrap=False, **options) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.nearestOn5. Returns: 4-Tuple `(lat, lon, distance, angle)` Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### nearestOn5 (point, points, closed=False, wrap=False, LatLon=None, **options) |
Locate the point on a path or polygon closest to a reference point. The closest point is either on and within the extent of a polygon edge or the nearest of that edge's end points. Arguments: `point` - Reference point (`LatLon`). `points` - The path or polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `closed` - Optionally, close the path or polygon (`bool`). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes and longitudinal delta (`bool`) in function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. `LatLon` - Optional class to return the closest point (`LatLon`) or `None`. `options` - Other keyword arguments for function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. Returns: A NearestOn3Tuple`(closest, distance, angle)` with the {closest} point (`LatLon`) or if `LatLon is None`, a NearestOn5Tuple`(lat, lon, distance, angle, height)`. The `distance` is the pygeodesy.equirectangular distance between the `closest` and reference `point` in `degrees`. The `angle` from the reference `point` to the `closest` is in compass `degrees360`, like function pygeodesy.compassAngle. Raises: `LimitError` - Lat- and/or longitudinal delta exceeds the `limit`, see function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon`. Note: Distances are approximated using function pygeodesy.equirectangular_, subject to the supplied `options`. Method `LatLon.nearestOn6` measures distances more accurately. See Also: Function pygeodesy.nearestOn6 for cartesian points. Use function pygeodesy.degrees2m to convert `degrees` to `meter`.

### nearestOn6 (point, points, closed=False, useZ=True, **Vector_and_kwds) |
Locate the point on a path or polygon closest to a reference point. The closest point is either on and within the extent of a polygon edge or the nearest of that edge's end points. Arguments: `point` - Reference point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `points` - The path or polygon points (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`[]). `closed` - Optionally, close the path or polygon (`bool`). `useZ` - If `True`, use the Z components, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). `Vector_and_kwds` - Optional class `Vector=None` to return the closest point and optional, additional `Vector` keyword arguments, otherwise `point`'s (sub-)class. Returns: A NearestOn6Tuple`(closest, distance, fi, j, start, end)` with the `closest`, the `start` and the `end` point each an instance of the `Vector` keyword argument of if {Vector=None} or not specified, an instance of the `point`'s (sub-)class. Raises: `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Non-cartesian `point` and `points`. Note: Distances measured with method Vector3d.equirectangular. See Also: Method `LatLon.nearestOn6` or function nearestOn5 for geodetic points.

### neg (x) |
Negate `x` unless `zero` or `NEG0`. Returns: `-x` if `x` else `0.0`.

### neg_ (*xs) |
Negate all of `xs` with neg. Returns: A `tuple(neg(x) for x in xs)`.

### norm2 (x, y) |
Normalize a 2-dimensional vector. Arguments: `x` - X component (`scalar`). `y` - Y component (`scalar`). Returns: 2-Tuple `(x, y)`, normalized. Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `x` or `y` or zero norm.

### normDMS (strDMS, norm=None, **s_D_M_S) |
Normalize all degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS) symbols in a string to the default symbols S_DEG, S_MIN, S_SEC. Arguments: `strDMS` - Original DMS string (`str`). `norm` - Optional replacement symbol (`str`) or `None` for the default DMS symbols). Use `norm=""` to remove all DMS symbols. `s_D_M_S` - Optional, alternate DMS symbols `s_D=str`, `s_M=str`, `s_S=str` and/or `s_R=str` for radians, each to be replaced by `norm`. Returns: Normalized DMS (`str`).

### norm_ (*xs) |
Normalize all n-dimensional vector components. Arguments: `xs` - Components (`scalar`s), all positional. Returns: Yield each component, normalized. Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid or insufficent `xs` or zero norm.

### normal (lat, lon, name='') |
Normalize a lat- and longitude pair in `degrees`. Arguments: `lat` - Latitude (`degrees`). `lon` - Longitude (`degrees`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: LatLon2Tuple`(lat, lon)` with `abs(lat) <= 90` and `abs(lon) <= 180`. See Also: Functions normal_ and isnormal.

### normal_ (phi, lam, name='') |
Normalize a lat- and longitude pair in `radians`. Arguments: `phi` - Latitude (`radians`). `lam` - Longitude (`radians`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: PhiLam2Tuple`(phi, lam)` with `abs(phi) <= PI/2` and `abs(lam) <= PI`. See Also: Functions normal and isnormal_.

### notImplemented (inst, *args, **kwds) |
Raise a `NotImplementedError` for a missing method or property. Arguments: `inst` - Instance (`any`). `args` - Method or property positional arguments (any `type`s). `kwds` - Method or property keyword arguments (any `type`s).

### notOverloaded (inst, *args, **kwds) |
Raise an `AssertionError` for a method or property not overloaded. Arguments: `inst` - Instance (`any`). `args` - Method or property positional arguments (any `type`s). `kwds` - Method or property keyword arguments (any `type`s).

### opposing (bearing1, bearing2, margin=90.0) |
Compare the direction of two bearings given in `degrees`. Arguments: `bearing1` - First bearing (compass `degrees`). `bearing2` - Second bearing (compass `degrees`). `margin` - Optional, interior angle bracket (`degrees`). Returns: `True` if both bearings point in opposite, `False` if in similar or `None` if in perpendicular directions. See Also: Function opposing_.

### opposing_ (radians1, radians2, margin=1.5707963267948966) |
Compare the direction of two bearings given in `radians`. Arguments: `radians1` - First bearing (`radians`). `radians2` - Second bearing (`radians`). `margin` - Optional, interior angle bracket (`radians`). Returns: `True` if both bearings point in opposite, `False` if in similar or `None` if in perpendicular directions. See Also: Function opposing.

### pairs (items, prec=6, fmt='F', ints=False, sep='=') |
Convert items to name=value strings, with `float`s handled like fstr. Arguments: `items` - Name-value pairs (`dict` or 2-{tuple}s of any `type`s). `prec` - The `float` precision, number of decimal digits (0..9). Trailing zero decimals are stripped if `prec` is positive, but kept for negative `prec` values. `fmt` - Optional, `float` format (`str`). `ints` - Optionally, remove the decimal dot for `int` values (`bool`). `sep` - Separator joining names and values (`str`). Returns: A `tuple(sep.join(t) for t in items))` of `str`s.

### parse3d (str3d, sep=',', Vector=<class 'pygeodesy.vector3d.Vector3d'>, **Vector_kwds) |
Parse an `"x, y, z"` string. Arguments: `str3d` - X, y and z values (`str`). `sep` - Optional separator (`str`). `Vector` - Optional class (Vector3d). `Vector_kwds` - Optional `Vector` keyword arguments, ignored if `Vector is None`. Returns: A `Vector` instance or if `Vector` is `None`, a named Vector3Tuple`(x, y, z)`. Raises: `VectorError` - Invalid `str3d`.

### parse3llh (strllh, height=0, sep=',', clipLat=90, clipLon=180, **s_D_M_S) |
Parse a string `"lat, lon [, h]"` representing lat-, longitude in `degrees` and optional height in `meter`. The lat- and longitude value must be separated by a separator character. If height is present it must follow, separated by another separator. The lat- and longitude values may be swapped, provided at least one ends with the proper compass point. Arguments: `strllh` - Latitude, longitude[, height] (`str`, ...). `height` - Optional, default height (`meter`) or `None`. `sep` - Optional separator between `"lat lon [h] suffix"` (`str`). `clipLat` - Limit latitude to range `-/+clipLat` (`degrees`). `clipLon` - Limit longitude to range `-/+clipLon` (`degrees`). `s_D_M_S` - Optional, alternate symbol for degrees `s_D=str`, minutes, `s_M=str` and/or seconds `s_S=str`. Returns: A LatLon3Tuple`(lat, lon, height)` in `degrees`, `degrees` and `float`. Raises: `RangeError` - Lat- or longitude value of `strllh` outside the valid `-/+clipLat` or `-/+clipLon` range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `ValueError` - Invalid `strllh` or `height`. Note: See the Notes at function parseDMS. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.parseDDDMMSS, pygeodesy.parseDMS, pygeodesy.parseDMS2 and pygeodesy.toDMS. Example:
    >>> parse3llh('000°00′05.31″W, 51° 28′ 40.12″ N')
    (51.4778°N, 000.0015°W, 0)

### parseDDDMMSS (strDDDMMSS, suffix=`'``NSEW``'`, sep='', clip=0, sexagecimal=False) |
Parse a lat- or longitude represention forms as [D]DDMMSS in degrees. Arguments: `strDDDMMSS` - Degrees in any of several forms (`str`) and types (`float`, `int`, other). `suffix` - Optional, valid compass points (`str`, `tuple`). `sep` - Optional separator between "[D]DD", "MM", "SS", `suffix` (S_SEP). `clip` - Optionally, limit value to range `-/+clip` (`degrees`). `sexagecimal` - If `True`, convert `"D.MMSS"` or `float(D.MMSS)` to `base-60` "MM" and "SS" digits. See `form`s F_D60, F_D60_ and F_D60__. Returns: Degrees (`float`). Raises: `ParseError` - Invalid `strDDDMMSS` or `clip` or the form of `strDDDMMSS` is incompatible with the suffixed or `suffix` compass point. `RangeError` - Value of `strDDDMMSS` outside the valid `-/+clip` range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. Notes: Type `str` values "[D]DD", "[D]DDMM", "[D]DDMMSS" and "[D]DD.MMSS" for `strDDDMMSS` are parsed properly only if either unsigned and suffixed with a valid, compatible, `cardinal` compassPoint or signed or unsigned, unsuffixed and with keyword argument `suffix`="NS", `suffix`="EW" or a compatible compassPoint. Unlike function parseDMS, type `float`, `int` and other non-`str` `strDDDMMSS` values are interpreted as `form` [D]DDMMSS or [D]DD.MMSS. For example, `int(1230)` is returned as 12.5 and not 1230.0 degrees. However, `int(345)` is considered `form` "DDD" 345 and not "DDMM" 0345, unless `suffix` specifies the compass point. Also, `float(15.0523)` is returned as 15.0523 decimal degrees and not 15°5′23″ sexagecimal. To consider the latter, use `float(15.0523)` or `"15.0523"` and specify the keyword argument `sexagecimal=True`. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.parseDMS, pygeodesy.parseDMS2 and pygeodesy.parse3llh.

### parseDMS (strDMS, suffix=`'``NSEW``'`, sep='', clip=0, **s_D_M_S) |
Parse a lat- or longitude representation in `degrees`. This is very flexible on formats, allowing signed decimal degrees, degrees and minutes or degrees minutes and seconds optionally suffixed by a cardinal compass point. A variety of symbols, separators and suffixes are accepted, for example "3°37′09″W". Minutes and seconds may be omitted. Arguments: `strDMS` - Degrees in any of several forms (`str`) and types (`float`, `int`, other). `suffix` - Optional, valid compass points (`str`, `tuple`). `sep` - Optional separator between deg°, min′, sec″, `suffix` (`''`). `clip` - Optionally, limit value to range `-/+clip` (`degrees`). `s_D_M_S` - Optional, alternate symbol for degrees `s_D=str`, minutes, `s_M=str` and/or seconds `s_S=str`. Returns: Degrees (`float`). Raises: `ParseError` - Invalid `strDMS` or `clip`. `RangeError` - Value of `strDMS` outside the valid `-/+clip` range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. Note: Unlike function parseDDDMMSS, type `float`, `int` and other non-`str` `strDMS` values are considered decimal (and not sexagecimal) degrees. For example, `int(1230)` is returned as 1230.0 and not as 12.5 degrees and `float(345)` as 345.0 and not as 3.75 degrees! See Also: Functions pygeodesy.parseDDDMMSS, pygeodesy.parseDMS2, pygeodesy.parse3llh and pygeodesy.toDMS.

### parseDMS2 (strLat, strLon, sep='', clipLat=90, clipLon=180, **s_D_M_S) |
Parse a lat- and a longitude representions `"lat, lon"` in `degrees`. Arguments: `strLat` - Latitude in any of several forms (`str` or `degrees`). `strLon` - Longitude in any of several forms (`str` or `degrees`). `sep` - Optional separator between deg°, min′, sec″, suffix (`''`). `clipLat` - Limit latitude to range `-/+clipLat` (`degrees`). `clipLon` - Limit longitude to range `-/+clipLon` (`degrees`). `s_D_M_S` - Optional, alternate symbol for degrees `s_D=str`, minutes, `s_M=str` and/or seconds `s_S=str`. Returns: A LatLon2Tuple`(lat, lon)` in `degrees`. Raises: `ParseError` - Invalid `strLat` or `strLon`. `RangeError` - Value of `strLat` or `strLon` outside the valid `-/+clipLat` or `-/+clipLon` range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. Note: See the Notes at function parseDMS. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.parseDDDMMSS, pygeodesy.parseDMS, pygeodesy.parse3llh and pygeodesy.toDMS.

### parseETM5 (strUTM, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Etm=<class 'pygeodesy.etm.Etm'>, falsed=True, name='') |
Parse a string representing a UTM coordinate, consisting of `"zone[band] hemisphere easting northing"`. Arguments: `strUTM` - A UTM coordinate (`str`). `datum` - Optional datum to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `Etm` - Optional class to return the UTM coordinate (Etm) or `None`. `falsed` - Both easting and northing are `falsed` (`bool`). `name` - Optional `Etm` name (`str`). Returns: The UTM coordinate (`Etm`) or if `Etm` is `None`, a UtmUps5Tuple`(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band)`. The `hemipole` is the hemisphere `'N'|'S'`. Raises: `ETMError` - Invalid `strUTM`. `TypeError` - Invalid or near-spherical `datum`. Example:
    >>> u = parseETM5('31 N 448251 5411932')
    >>> u.toRepr()  # [Z:31, H:N, E:448251, N:5411932]
    >>> u = parseETM5('31 N 448251.8 5411932.7')
    >>> u.toStr()  # 31 N 448252 5411933

### parseMGRS (strMGRS, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Mgrs=<class 'pygeodesy.mgrs.Mgrs'>, name='') |
Parse a string representing a MGRS grid reference, consisting of `"[zone]Band, EN, easting, northing"`. Arguments: `strMGRS` - MGRS grid reference (`str`). `datum` - Optional datum to use (Datum). `Mgrs` - Optional class to return the MGRS grid reference (Mgrs) or `None`. `name` - Optional `Mgrs` name (`str`). Returns: The MGRS grid reference as `Mgrs` or if `Mgrs is None` as an Mgrs4Tuple`(zone, EN, easting, northing)`. Raises: `MGRSError` - Invalid `strMGRS`. Example:
    >>> m = parseMGRS('31U DQ 48251 11932')
    >>> str(m)  # '31U DQ 48251 11932'
    >>> m = parseMGRS('31UDQ4825111932')
    >>> repr(m)  # [Z:31U, G:DQ, E:48251, N:11932]
    >>> m = parseMGRS('42SXD0970538646')
    >>> str(m)  # '42S XD 09705 38646'
    >>> m = parseMGRS('42SXD9738')  # Km
    >>> str(m)  # '42S XD 97000 38000'
    >>> m = parseMGRS('YUB17770380')  # polar
    >>> str(m)  # 'Y UB 17770 03800'

### parseOSGR (strOSGR, Osgr=<class 'pygeodesy.osgr.Osgr'>, name='', **Osgr_kwds) |
Parse a string representing an OS Grid Reference, consisting of `"[GD] easting northing"`. Accepts standard OS Grid References like "SU 387 148", with or without whitespace separators, from 2- up to 22-digit references, or all-numeric, comma-separated references in meters, for example "438700,114800". Arguments: `strOSGR` - An OSGR coordinate (`str`). `Osgr` - Optional class to return the OSGR coordinate (Osgr) or `None`. `name` - Optional `Osgr` name (`str`). `Osgr_kwds` - Optional, additional `Osgr` keyword arguments, ignored if `Osgr is None`. Returns: An (`Osgr`) instance or if `Osgr` is `None` an EasNor2Tuple`(easting, northing)`. Raises: `OSGRError` - Invalid `strOSGR`. Example:
    >>> r = parseOSGR('TG5140913177')
    >>> str(r)  # 'TG 51409 13177'
    >>> r = parseOSGR('TG 51409 13177')
    >>> r.toStr()  # 'TG5140913177'
    >>> r = parseOSGR('651409,313177')
    >>> r.toStr(sep=' ')  # 'TG 51409 13177'
    >>> r.toStr(GD=False)  # '651409,313177'

### parseRad (strRad, suffix=`'``NSEW``'`, clip=0) |
Parse a string representing angle in `radians`. Arguments: `strRad` - Degrees in any of several forms (`str` or `radians`). `suffix` - Optional, valid compass points (`str`, `tuple`). `clip` - Optionally, limit value to range `-/+clip` (`radians`). Returns: Radians (`float`). Raises: `ParseError` - Invalid `strRad` or `clip`. `RangeError` - Value of `strRad` outside the valid `-/+clip` range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`.

### parseUPS5 (strUPS, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Ups=<class 'pygeodesy.ups.Ups'>, falsed=True, name='') |
Parse a string representing a UPS coordinate, consisting of `"[zone][band] pole easting northing"` where `zone` is pseudo zone `"00"|"0"|""` and `band` is `'A'|'B'|'Y'|'Z'|''`. Arguments: `strUPS` - A UPS coordinate (`str`). `datum` - Optional datum to use (Datum). `Ups` - Optional class to return the UPS coordinate (Ups) or `None`. `falsed` - Both `easting` and `northing` are falsed (`bool`). `name` - Optional `Ups` name (`str`). Returns: The UPS coordinate (`Ups`) or a UtmUps5Tuple`(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band)` if `Ups` is `None`. The `hemipole` is the `'N'|'S'` pole, the UPS projection top/center. Raises: `UPSError` - Invalid `strUPS`.

### parseUTM (strUTM, datum=object(), Utm=object(), name='') |
DEPRECATED, use function parseUTM5. Returns: The UTM coordinate (Utm) or 4-tuple `(zone, hemisphere, easting, northing)` if `Utm` is `None`. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### parseUTM5 (strUTM, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Utm=<class 'pygeodesy.utm.Utm'>, falsed=True, name='') |
Parse a string representing a UTM coordinate, consisting of `"zone[band] hemisphere easting northing"`. Arguments: `strUTM` - A UTM coordinate (`str`). `datum` - Optional datum to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `Utm` - Optional class to return the UTM coordinate (Utm) or `None`. `falsed` - Both easting and northing are falsed (`bool`). `name` - Optional `Utm` name (`str`). Returns: The UTM coordinate (`Utm`) or if `Utm` is `None`, a UtmUps5Tuple`(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band)`. The `hemipole` is the `'N'|'S'` hemisphere. Raises: `UTMError` - Invalid `strUTM`. `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. Example:
    >>> u = parseUTM5('31 N 448251 5411932')
    >>> u.toRepr()  # [Z:31, H:N, E:448251, N:5411932]
    >>> u = parseUTM5('31 N 448251.8 5411932.7')
    >>> u.toStr()  # 31 N 448252 5411933

### parseUTMUPS5 (strUTMUPS, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Utm=<class 'pygeodesy.utm.Utm'>, Ups=<class 'pygeodesy.ups.Ups'>, name='') |
Parse a string representing a UTM or UPS coordinate, consisting of `"zone[band] hemisphere/pole easting northing"`. Arguments: `strUTMUPS` - A UTM or UPS coordinate (`str`). `datum` - Optional datum to use (Datum). `Utm` - Optional class to return the UTM coordinate (Utm) or `None`. `Ups` - Optional class to return the UPS coordinate (Ups) or `None`. `name` - Optional instance name (`str`). Returns: The UTM or UPS instance (`Utm` or `Ups`) or a UtmUps5Tuple`(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band)` if `Utm` respectively `Ups` or both are `None`. The `hemipole` is `'N'|'S'`, the UTM hemisphere or UPS pole, the UPS projection top/center. Raises: `UTMUPSError` - Invalid `strUTMUPS`. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.parseUTM5 and pygeodesy.parseUPS5.

### parseWM (strWM, radius=6378137.0, Wm=<class 'pygeodesy.webmercator.Wm'>, name='') |
Parse a string `"e n [r]"` representing a WM coordinate, consisting of easting, northing and an optional radius. Arguments: `strWM` - A WM coordinate (`str`). `radius` - Optional earth radius (`meter`). `Wm` - Optional class to return the WM coordinate (Wm) or `None`. `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: The WM coordinate (`Wm`) or an EasNorRadius3Tuple`(easting, northing, radius)` if `Wm` is `None`. Raises: `WebMercatorError` - Invalid `strWM`. Example:
    >>> u = parseWM('448251 5411932')
    >>> u.toRepr()  # [E:448251, N:5411932]

### perimeterOf (points, closed=False, adjust=True, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=True) |
Approximate the perimeter of a path or polygon. Arguments: `points` - The path or polygon points (`LatLon`[]). `closed` - Optionally, close the path or polygon (`bool`). `adjust` - Adjust the wrapped, unrolled longitudinal delta by the cosine of the mean latitude (`bool`). `radius` - Mean earth radius (`meter`). `wrap` - Wrap lat-, wrap and unroll longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Approximate perimeter (`meter`, same units as `radius`). Raises: `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points` `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `LatLon`. `ValueError` - Invalid `radius`. Note: This perimeter is based on the pygeodesy.equirectangular_ distance approximation and is ill-suited for regions exceeding several hundred Km or Miles or with near-polar latitudes. See Also: Functions sphericalTrigonometry.perimeterOf and ellipsoidalKarney.perimeterOf.

### perimeterof (points, closed=False, adjust=True, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=True) |
DEPRECATED, use function perimeterOf. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### philam2n_xyz (phi, lam, name='') |
Convert lat-, longitude to `n-vector` (normal to the earth's surface) X, Y and Z components. Arguments: `phi` - Latitude (`radians`). `lam` - Longitude (`radians`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: A Vector3Tuple`(x, y, z)`. See Also: Function latlon2n_xyz. Note: These are `n-vector` x, y and z components, NOT geocentric ECEF x, y and z coordinates!

### pierlot (point1, point2, point3, alpha12, alpha23, useZ=False, Clas=None, **Clas_kwds) |
3-Point resection using Pierlot's method `ToTal`. Arguments: `point1` - First point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point2` - Second point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point3` - Third point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `alpha12` - Angle subtended from `point1` to `point2` (`degrees`). `alpha23` - Angle subtended from `point2` to `point3` (`degrees`). `useZ` - If `True`, interpolate the Z component, otherwise use `z=INT0` (`bool`). `Clas` - Optional class to return the survey point or `None` for `point1`'s (sub-)class. `Clas_kwds` - Optional additional keyword arguments for the survey point instance. Returns: The survey (or robot) point, an instance of `Clas` or if `Clas is None` of `point1`'s (sub-)class. Raises: `ResectionError` - Near-coincident, -colinear or -concyclic points or invalid `alpha12` or `alpha23`. `TypeError` - Invalid `point1`, `point2` or `point3`. Note: Points `point1`, `point2` and `point3` are ordered counter-clockwise, typically. See Also: V. Pierlot, M. Van Droogenbroeck, "A New Three Object Triangulation Algorithm for Mobile Robot Positioning", Vincent Pierlot, Marc Van Droogenbroeck, "18 Triangulation Algorithms for 2D Positioning (also known as the Resection Problem)" and functions pygeodesy.cassini, pygeodesy.collins5 and pygeodesy.tienstra7.

### points2 (points, closed=True, base=None, Error=<class 'pygeodesy.errors.PointsError'>) |
Check a path or polygon represented by points. Arguments: `points` - The path or polygon points (`LatLon`[]) `closed` - Optionally, consider the polygon closed, ignoring any duplicate or closing final `points` (`bool`). `base` - Optionally, check all `points` against this base class, if `None` don't check. `Error` - Exception to raise (`ValueError`). Returns: A Points2Tuple`(number, points)` with the number of points and the points `list` or `tuple`. Raises: `PointsError` - Insufficient number of `points`. `TypeError` - Some `points` are not `base` compatible.

### polygon (points, closed=True, base=None) |
DEPRECATED, use function points2. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### precision (form, prec=None) |
Set the default precison for a given F_ form. Arguments: `form` - F_D, F_DM, F_DMS, F_DEG, F_MIN, F_SEC, F_D60, F__E, F__F, F__G or F_RAD (`str`). `prec` - Number of decimal digits (0..9 or `None` for default). Trailing zero decimals are stripped for `prec` values of 1 and above, but kept for negative `prec`. Returns: Previous precision for the `form` (`int`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `form` or `prec` or `prec` outside the valid range `-/+9`.

### print_ (*args, **nl_nt_prefix_end_file_flush_sep) |
Python 3+ `print`-like formatting and printing. Arguments: `args` - Arguments to be converted to `str` and joined by `sep` (`any` type, all positional). `nl_nt_prefix_end_file_flush_sep` - Keyword arguments `nl=0` for the number of leading blank lines (`int`), `nt=0` the number of trailing blank lines (`int`), `prefix=NN` to be inserted before the formatted text (`str`) and Python 3+ `print` keyword arguments `end`, `sep`, `file` and `flush`. Returns: Number of bytes written.

### printf (fmt, *args, **nl_nt_prefix_end_file_flush_sep_kwds) |
`Printf-style` and Python 3+ `print`-like formatting and printing. Arguments: `fmt` - Printf-style format specification (`str`). `args` - Arguments to be formatted (`any` types, all positional). `nl_nt_prefix_end_file_flush_sep_kwds` - Keyword arguments `nl=0` for the number of leading blank lines (`int`), `nt=0` the number of trailing blank lines (`int`), `prefix=NN` to be inserted before the formatted text (`str`) and Python 3+ `print` keyword arguments `end`, `sep`, `file` and `flush`. Any remaining `kwds` are printf-style keyword arguments to be formatted, iff no `args` are present. Returns: Number of bytes written.

### property_doc_ (doc) |
Decorator for a standard `property` with basic documentation. Arguments: `doc` - The property documentation (`str`). Example:
    >>> @property_doc_("documentation text.")
    >>> def name(self):
    >>>     ...
    >>>
    >>> @name.setter
    >>> def name(self, value):
    >>>     ...

### quadOf (latS, lonW, latN, lonE, closed=False, LatLon=<class 'pygeodesy.points.LatLon_'>, **LatLon_kwds) |
Generate a quadrilateral path or polygon from two points. Arguments: `latS` - Southernmost latitude (`degrees90`). `lonW` - Westernmost longitude (`degrees180`). `latN` - Northernmost latitude (`degrees90`). `lonE` - Easternmost longitude (`degrees180`). `closed` - Optionally, close the path (`bool`). `LatLon` - Class to use (LatLon_). `LatLon_kwds` - Optional, additional `LatLon` keyword arguments. Returns: Return a tuple of 4 or 5 `LatLon` instances outlining the quadrilateral. See Also: Function boundsOf.

### radians2m (rad, radius=6371008.771415, lat=0) |
Convert an angle to a distance along the equator or along the parallel at an other (geodetic) latitude. Arguments: `rad` - The angle (`radians`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `lat` - Parallel latitude (`degrees90`, `str`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius` or equatorial and polar radii) or `0.0` for near-polar `lat`. Raises: `RangeError` - Latitude `lat` outside valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `TypeError` - Invalid `radius`. `ValueError` - Invalid `rad`, `radius` or `lat`. See Also: Function degrees2m and m2radians.

### radiansPI (deg) |
Convert and wrap degrees to radians [-PI..+PI]. Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). Returns: Radians, wrapped (`radiansPI`)

### radiansPI2 (deg) |
Convert and wrap degrees to radians [0..+2PI). Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). Returns: Radians, wrapped (`radiansPI2`)

### radiansPI_2 (deg) |
Convert and wrap degrees to radians [-3PI/2..+PI/2]. Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). Returns: Radians, wrapped (`radiansPI_2`)

### radical2 (distance, radius1, radius2) |
Compute the radical ratio and radical line of two intersecting circles. The radical line is perpendicular to the axis thru the centers of the circles at `(0, 0)` and `(distance, 0)`. Arguments: `distance` - Distance between the circle centers (`scalar`). `radius1` - Radius of the first circle (`scalar`). `radius2` - Radius of the second circle (`scalar`). Returns: A Radical2Tuple`(ratio, xline)` where `0.0 <= ratio <= 1.0` and `xline` is along the `distance`. Raises: `IntersectionError` - The `distance` exceeds the sum of `radius1` and `radius2`. `UnitError` - Invalid `distance`, `radius1` or `radius2`. See Also: Circle-Circle Intersection.

### radii11 (point1, point2, point3, useZ=True) |
Return the radii of the `In-`, Soddy and `Tangent` circles of a (2- or 3-D) triangle. Arguments: `point1` - First point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point2` - Second point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point3` - Third point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `useZ` - If `True`, use the Z components, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). Returns: Radii11Tuple`(rA, rB, rC, cR, rIn, riS, roS, a, b, c, s)`. Raises: `TriangleError` - Near-coincident or -colinear points. `TypeError` - Invalid `point1`, `point2` or `point3`. See Also: Circumradius, Incircle, Soddy Circles and Tangent Circles.

### randomrangenerator (seed) |
Return a `seed`ed random range function generator. Arguments: `seed` - Initial, internal Random state (`hashable` or `None`). Returns: A function to generate random ranges. Note: Random with `seed is None` seeds from the current time or from a platform-specific randomness source, if available. Example:
    >>> rrange = randomrangenerator('R')
    >>> for r in rrange(n):
    >>>    ...  # r is random in 0..n-1

### rangerrors (raiser=None) |
Get/set the throwing of RangeErrors. Arguments: `raiser` - Choose `True` to raise or `False` to ignore RangeError exceptions. Use `None` to leave the setting unchanged. Returns: Previous setting (`bool`).

### reprs (objs, prec=6, fmt='F', ints=False) |
Convert objects to `repr` strings, with `float`s handled like fstr. Arguments: `objs` - List, sequence, tuple, etc. (any `type`s). `prec` - The `float` precision, number of decimal digits (0..9). Trailing zero decimals are stripped if `prec` is positive, but kept for negative `prec` values. `fmt` - Optional, `float` format (`str`). `ints` - Optionally, remove the decimal dot for `int` values (`bool`). Returns: A `tuple(map(fstr|repr, objs))` of `str`s.

### scalar (value, low=2.220446049250313e-16, high=1.0, name=`'``scalar``'`, Error=<type 'exceptions.ValueError'>) |
DEPRECATED, use class Number_ or Scalar_. Returns: New value (`float` or `int` for `int` `low`). Decorators: `@deprecated_function` Raises: `Error` - Invalid `value`.

### signBit (x) |
Return `signbit(x)`, like C++. Returns: `True` if `x < 0` or `NEG0` (`bool`).

### signOf (x) |
Return sign of `x` as `int`. Returns: -1, 0 or +1 (`int`).

### simplify1 (points, distance=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, indices=False, **options) |
Basic simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. Eliminates any points closer together than the given distance tolerance. Arguments: `points` - Path points (`LatLon`[]). `distance` - Tolerance (`meter`, same units as `radius`). `radius` - Mean earth radius (`meter`). `indices` - Optionally return the simplified point indices instead of the simplified points (`bool`). `options` - Optional keyword arguments passed thru to function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. Returns: Simplified points (`LatLon`[]). Raises: `LimitError` - Lat- and/or longitudinal delta exceeds the `limit`, see function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. `ValueError` - Tolerance `distance` or `radius` too small.

### simplify2 (points, pipe, radius=6371008.771415, shortest=False, indices=False, **options) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.simplifyRW. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### simplifyRDP (points, distance=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, shortest=False, indices=False, **options) |
Ramer-Douglas-Peucker (RDP) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. Eliminates any points too close together or closer to an edge than the given distance tolerance. This `RDP` method exhaustively searches for the point with the largest distance, resulting in worst-case complexity O(n**2) where n is the number of points. Arguments: `points` - Path points (`LatLon`[]). `distance` - Tolerance (`meter`, same units as `radius`). `radius` - Mean earth radius (`meter`). `shortest` - Optional, shortest or perpendicular distance (`bool`). `indices` - Optionally return the simplified point indices instead of the simplified points (`bool`). `options` - Optional keyword arguments passed thru to function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. Returns: Simplified points (`LatLon`[]). Raises: `LimitError` - Lat- and/or longitudinal delta exceeds the `limit`, see function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. `ValueError` - Tolerance `distance` or `radius` too small.

### simplifyRDPm (points, distance=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, shortest=False, indices=False, **options) |
Modified Ramer-Douglas-Peucker (RDPm) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. Eliminates any points too close together or closer to an edge than the given distance tolerance. This `RDPm` method stops at the first point farther than the given distance tolerance, significantly reducing the run time (but producing results different from the original `RDP` method). Arguments: `points` - Path points (`LatLon`[]). `distance` - Tolerance (`meter`, same units as `radius`). `radius` - Mean earth radius (`meter`). `shortest` - Optional, shortest or perpendicular distance (`bool`). `indices` - Optionally return the simplified point indices instead of the simplified points (`bool`). `options` - Optional keyword arguments passed thru to function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. Returns: Simplified points (`LatLon`[]). Raises: `LimitError` - Lat- and/or longitudinal delta exceeds the `limit`, see function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. `ValueError` - Tolerance `distance` or `radius` too small.

### simplifyRW (points, pipe=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, shortest=False, indices=False, **options) |
Reumann-Witkam (RW) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. Eliminates any points too close together or within the given pipe tolerance along an edge. Arguments: `points` - Path points (`LatLon`[]). `pipe` - Pipe radius, half-width (`meter`, same units as `radius`). `radius` - Mean earth radius (`meter`). `shortest` - Optional, shortest or perpendicular distance (`bool`). `indices` - Optionally return the simplified point indices instead of the simplified points (`bool`). `options` - Optional keyword arguments passed thru to function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. Returns: Simplified points (`LatLon`[]). Raises: `LimitError` - Lat- and/or longitudinal delta exceeds the `limit`, see function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. `ValueError` - Tolerance `pipe` or `radius` too small.

### simplifyVW (points, area=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, attr=None, indices=False, **options) |
Visvalingam-Whyatt (VW) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. Eliminates any points too close together or with a triangular area not exceeding the given area tolerance squared. This `VW` method exhaustively searches for the single point with the smallest triangular area, resulting in worst-case complexity O(n**2) where n is the number of points. Arguments: `points` - Path points (`LatLon`[]). `area` - Tolerance (`meter`, same units as `radius`). `radius` - Mean earth radius (`meter`). `attr` - Optional, points attribute to save the area value (`str`). `indices` - Optionally return the simplified point indices instead of the simplified points (`bool`). `options` - Optional keyword arguments passed thru to function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. Returns: Simplified points (`LatLon`[]). Raises: `AttributeError` - If an `attr` is specified for Numpy2 `points`. `LimitError` - Lat- and/or longitudinal delta exceeds the `limit`, see function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. `ValueError` - Tolerance `area` or `radius` too small.

### simplifyVWm (points, area=0.001, radius=6371008.771415, attr=None, indices=False, **options) |
Modified Visvalingam-Whyatt (VWm) simplification of a path of `LatLon` points. Eliminates any points too close together or with a triangular area not exceeding the given area tolerance squared. This `VWm` method removes all points with a triangular area below the tolerance in each iteration, significantly reducing the run time (but producing results different from the original `VW` method). Arguments: `points` - Path points (`LatLon`[]). `area` - Tolerance (`meter`, same units as `radius`). `radius` - Mean earth radius (`meter`). `attr` - Optional, points attribute to save the area value (`str`). `indices` - Optionally return the simplified point indices instead of the simplified points (`bool`). `options` - Optional keyword arguments passed thru to function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. Returns: Simplified points (`LatLon`[]). Raises: `AttributeError` - If an `attr` is specified for Numpy2 `points`. `LimitError` - Lat- and/or longitudinal delta exceeds the `limit`, see function pygeodesy.equirectangular_. `ValueError` - Tolerance `area` or `radius` too small.

### sincos2 (rad) |
Return the `sine` and `cosine` of an angle in `radians`. Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: 2-Tuple (`sin(rad)`, `cos(rad)`). See Also: GeographicLib function sincosd and C++ sincosd.

### sincos2_ (*rads) |
Return the `sine` and `cosine` of angle(s) in `radians`. Arguments: `rads` - One or more angles (`radians`). Returns: Yield the `sin(rad)` and `cos(rad)` for each angle. See Also: function sincos2.

### sincos2d (deg, **adeg) |
Return the `sine` and `cosine` of an angle in `degrees`. Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). `adeg` - Optional correction (`degrees`). Returns: 2-Tuple (`sin(deg_)`, `cos(deg_)`, `deg_ = deg + adeg`). See Also: GeographicLib function sincosd and C++ sincosd.

### sincos2d_ (*degs) |
Return the `sine` and `cosine` of angle(s) in `degrees`. Arguments: `degs` - One or more angles (`degrees`). Returns: Yield the `sin(deg)` and `cos(deg)` for each angle. See Also: Function sincos2d.

### sincostan3 (rad) |
Return the `sine`, `cosine` and `tangent` of an angle in `radians`. Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: 3-Tuple (`sin(rad)`, `cos(rad)`, `tan(rad)`). See Also: Function sincos2.

### snellius3 (a, b, degC, alpha, beta) |
Snellius' surveying using Snellius Pothenot. Arguments: `a` - Length of the triangle side between corners `B` and `C` and opposite of triangle corner `A` (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `b` - Length of the triangle side between corners `C` and `A` and opposite of triangle corner `B` (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `degC` - Angle at triangle corner `C`, opposite triangle side `c` (non-negative `degrees`). `alpha` - Angle subtended by triangle side `b` (non-negative `degrees`). `beta` - Angle subtended by triangle side `a` (non-negative `degrees`). Returns: Survey3Tuple`(PA, PB, PC)` with distance from survey point `P` to each of the triangle corners `A`, `B` and `C`, same units as triangle sides `a`, `b` and `c`. Raises: `TriangleError` - Invalid `a`, `b` or `degC` or negative `alpha` or `beta`. See Also: Function pygeodesy.wildberger3.

### soddy4 (point1, point2, point3, eps=8.881784197001252e-16, useZ=True) |
Return the radius and center of the `inner` Soddy circle of a (2- or 3-D) triangle. Arguments: `point1` - First point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point2` - Second point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `point3` - Third point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `eps` - Tolerance for function pygeodesy.trilaterate3d2 if `useZ is True` otherwise pygeodesy.trilaterate2d2. `useZ` - If `True`, use the Z components, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). Returns: Soddy4Tuple`(radius, center, deltas, outer)`. The `center`, an instance of `point1`'s (sub-)class, is co-planar with the three given points. Raises: `ImportError` - Package `numpy` not found, not installed or older than version 1.10 and `useZ is True`. `IntersectionError` - Near-coincident or -colinear points or a trilateration or `numpy` issue. `TypeError` - Invalid `point1`, `point2` or `point3`. See Also: Functions radii11 and circum3.

### splice (iterable, n=2, **fill) |
Split an iterable into `n` slices. Arguments: `iterable` - Items to be spliced (`list`, `tuple`, ...). `n` - Number of slices to generate (`int`). `fill` - Optional fill value for missing items. Returns: A generator for each of `n` slices, iterable[i::n] for i=0..n. Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `n`. Note: Each generated slice is a `tuple` or a `list`, the latter only if the `iterable` is a `list`. Example:
    >>> from pygeodesy import splice
    >>> a, b = splice(range(10))
    >>> a, b
    ((0, 2, 4, 6, 8), (1, 3, 5, 7, 9))
    >>> a, b, c = splice(range(10), n=3)
    >>> a, b, c
    ((0, 3, 6, 9), (1, 4, 7), (2, 5, 8))
    >>> a, b, c = splice(range(10), n=3, fill=-1)
    >>> a, b, c
    ((0, 3, 6, 9), (1, 4, 7, -1), (2, 5, 8, -1))
    >>> tuple(splice(list(range(9)), n=5))
    ([0, 5], [1, 6], [2, 7], [3, 8], [4])
    >>> splice(range(9), n=1)
    <generator object splice at 0x0...>

### sqrt0 (x) |
Compute the square root iff `x >` EPS02. Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). Returns: Square root (`float`) or `0.0`. Note: Any `x <` EPS02 including `x < 0` returns `0.0`.

### sqrt3 (x) |
Compute the square root, cubed sqrt(x)**3 or sqrt(x**3). Arguments: `x` - Value (`scalar`). Returns: Square root cubed (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Negative `x`. See Also: Functions cbrt and cbrt2.

### sqrt_a (h, b) |
Compute `a` side of a right-angled triangle from `sqrt(h**2 - b**2)`. Arguments: `h` - Hypotenuse or outer annulus radius (`scalar`). `b` - Triangle side or inner annulus radius (`scalar`). Returns: `copysign(a, h)` or `unsigned 0.0` (`float`). Raises: `TypeError` - Non-scalar `h` or `b`. `ValueError` - If `abs(h) < abs(b)`. See Also: Inner tangent chord d of an annulus and function annulus_area.

### strs (objs, prec=6, fmt='F', ints=False) |
Convert objects to `str` strings, with `float`s handled like fstr. Arguments: `objs` - List, sequence, tuple, etc. (any `type`s). `prec` - The `float` precision, number of decimal digits (0..9). Trailing zero decimals are stripped if `prec` is positive, but kept for negative `prec` values. `fmt` - Optional, `float` format (`str`). `ints` - Optionally, remove the decimal dot for `int` values (`bool`). Returns: A `tuple(map(fstr|str, objs))` of `str`s.

### tanPI_2_2 (rad) |
Compute the tangent of half angle, 90 degrees rotated. Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: tan((rad + PI/2) / 2) (`float`).

### tan_2 (rad, **semi) |
Compute the tangent of half angle. Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). `semi` - Angle or edge name and index for semi-circular error. Returns: tan(rad / 2) (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - If `rad` is semi-circular and `semi` is given.

### tand (deg, **error_kwds) |
Return the `tangent` of an angle in `degrees`. Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). `error_kwds` - Error to raise (`ValueError`). Returns: `tan(deg)`. Raises: `ValueError` - If pygeodesy.isnear0`(cos(deg)`.

### tand_ (*degs, **error_kwds) |
Return the `tangent` of angle(s) in `degrees`. Arguments: `degs` - One or more angles (`degrees`). `error_kwds` - Error to raise (`ValueError`). Returns: Yield the `tan(deg)` for each angle. Raises: `ValueError` - See pygeodesy.tand.

### thomas (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using Thomas' formula. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as the `datum`'s ellipsoid axes). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. See Also: Functions thomas_, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert, cosineLaw, equirectangular, euclidean, flatLocal/hubeny, flatPolar, haversine, vincentys and method Ellipsoid.distance2.

### thomas_ (phi2, phi1, lam21, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`) |
Compute the angular distance between two (ellipsoidal) points using Thomas' formula. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). `datum` - Datum or ellipsoid to use (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). Raises: `TypeError` - Invalid `datum`. See Also: Functions thomas, cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, cosineLaw_, equirectangular_, euclidean_, flatLocal_/hubeny_, flatPolar_, haversine_ and vincentys_ and Geodesy-PHP.

### tienstra (pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, **beta_gamma_useZ_Clas_and_kwds) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.tienstra7. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### tienstra7 (pointA, pointB, pointC, alpha, beta=None, gamma=None, useZ=False, Clas=None, **Clas_kwds) |
3-Point resection using Tienstra's formula. Arguments: `pointA` - First point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `pointB` - Second point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `pointC` - Third point (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple`, `Vector4Tuple` or `Vector2Tuple` if `useZ=False`). `alpha` - Angle subtended by triangle side `a` from `pointB` to `pointC` (`degrees`, non-negative). `beta` - Angle subtended by triangle side `b` from `pointA` to `pointC` (`degrees`, non-negative) or `None` if `gamma is not None`. `gamma` - Angle subtended by triangle side `c` from `pointA` to `pointB` (`degrees`, non-negative) or `None` if `beta is not None`. `useZ` - If `True`, use and interpolate the Z component, otherwise force `z=INT0` (`bool`). `Clas` - Optional class to return the survey point or `None` for `pointA`'s (sub-)class. `Clas_kwds` - Optional additional keyword arguments for the survey point instance. Returns: Tienstra7Tuple`(pointP, A, B, C, a, b, c)` with survey `pointP`, an instance of `Clas` or if `Clas is None` of `pointA`'s (sub-)class, with triangle angles `A` at `pointA`, `B` at `pointB` and `C` at `pointC` in `degrees` and with triangle sides `a`, `b` and `c` in `meter`, conventionally. Raises: `ResectionError` - Near-coincident, -colinear or -concyclic points or sum of `alpha`, `beta` and `gamma` not `360` or negative `alpha`, `beta` or `gamma`. `TypeError` - Invalid `pointA`, `pointB` or `pointC`. Note: Points `pointA`, `pointB` and `pointC` are ordered clockwise. See Also: 3-Point Resection Solver, V. Pierlot, M. Van Droogenbroeck, "A New Three Object Triangulation...", 18 Triangulation Algorithms... and functions pygeodesy.cassini, pygeodesy.collins5 and pygeodesy.pierlot.

### toCss (latlon, cs0=None, height=None, Css=<class 'pygeodesy.css.Css'>, name='') |
Convert an (ellipsoidal) geodetic point to a Cassini-Soldner location. Arguments: `latlon` - Ellipsoidal point (`LatLon` or LatLon4Tuple). `cs0` - Optional, the Cassini-Soldner projection to use (CassiniSoldner). `height` - Optional height for the point, overriding the default height (`meter`). `Css` - Optional class to return the location (Css) or `None`. `name` - Optional `Css` name (`str`). Returns: The Cassini-Soldner location (`Css`) or an EasNor3Tuple`(easting, northing, height)` if `Css` is `None`. Raises: `CSSError` - Ellipsoidal mismatch of `latlon` and `cs0`. `ImportError` - Package geographiclib not installed or not found. `TypeError` - If `latlon` is not ellipsoidal.

### toDMS (deg, form=`'``dms``'`, prec=2, sep='', ddd=2, neg='-', pos='+', **s_D_M_S) |
Convert signed `degrees` to string, without suffix. Arguments: `deg` - Degrees to be formatted (`scalar degrees`). `form` - Format specifier for `deg` (`str` or F_D, F_DM, F_DMS, F_DEG, F_MIN, F_SEC, F_D60, F__E, F__F, F__G, F_RAD, F_D_, F_DM_, F_DMS_, F_DEG_, F_MIN_, F_SEC_, F_D60_, F__E_, F__F_, F__G_, F_RAD_, F_D__, F_DM__, F_DMS__, F_DEG__, F_MIN__, F_SEC__, F_D60__, F__E__, F__F__, F__G__ or F_RAD__). `prec` - Number of decimal digits (0..9 or `None` for default). Trailing zero decimals are stripped for `prec` values of 1 and above, but kept for negative `prec`. `sep` - Separator between degrees, minutes, seconds, suffix (`str`). `ddd` - Number of digits for `deg`° (2 or 3). `neg` - Prefix for negative `deg` (`'-'`). `pos` - Prefix for positive `deg` and signed `form` (`'+'`). `s_D_M_S` - Optional keyword arguments `s_D=str`, `s_M=str` `s_S=str` and `s_DMS=True` to override any or cancel all DMS symbols, defaults S_DEG, S_MIN respectively S_SEC. See Notes below. Returns: Degrees in the specified form (`str`). Notes: The degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS) symbol can be overridden in this and other `*DMS` functions by using optional keyword argments `s_D="d"`, `s_M="'"` respectively `s_S='"'`. Using keyword argument `s_DMS`=None cancels all `DMS` symbols to `S_NUL=NN`. Sexagecimal format `F_D60` supports overridable pseudo-DMS symbols positioned at `"[D]DD<s_D>MM<s_M>SS<s_S>"` with defaults `s_D="."`, `s_M=sep` and `s_S=`pygeodesy.NN. Formats `F__E`, `F__F` and `F__G` can be extended with a `D`-only symbol if defined with keyword argument `s_D=str`. Likewise for `F_RAD` formats with keyword argument `s_R=str`. See Also: Function pygeodesy.degDMS

### toEtm8 (latlon, lon=None, datum=None, Etm=<class 'pygeodesy.etm.Etm'>, falsed=True, name='', strict=True, zone=None, **cmoff) |
Convert a lat-/longitude point to an ETM coordinate. Arguments: `latlon` - Latitude (`degrees`) or an (ellipsoidal) geodetic `LatLon` point. `lon` - Optional longitude (`degrees`) or `None`. `datum` - Optional datum for this ETM coordinate, overriding `latlon`'s datum (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `Etm` - Optional class to return the ETM coordinate (Etm) or `None`. `falsed` - False both easting and northing (`bool`). `name` - Optional `Utm` name (`str`). `strict` - Restrict `lat` to UTM ranges (`bool`). `zone` - Optional UTM zone to enforce (`int` or `str`). `cmoff` - DEPRECATED, use `falsed`. Offset longitude from the zone's central meridian (`bool`). Returns: The ETM coordinate (`Etm`) or a UtmUps8Tuple`(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band, datum, convergence, scale)` if `Etm` is `None` or not `falsed`. The `hemipole` is the `'N'|'S'` hemisphere. Raises: `ETMError` - No convergence transforming to ETM east- and northing. `ETMError` - Invalid `zone` or near-spherical or incompatible `datum` or `ellipsoid`. `RangeError` - If `lat` outside the valid UTM bands or if `lat` or `lon` outside the valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `TypeError` - Invalid or near-spherical `datum` or `latlon` not ellipsoidal. `ValueError` - The `lon` value is missing or `latlon` is invalid.

### toLcc (latlon, conic=Conic(name='WRF_Lb', lat0=40, lon0=-97, par1=33, par2=45, E0=0`...`, height=None, Lcc=<class 'pygeodesy.lcc.Lcc'>, name='', **Lcc_kwds) |
Convert an (ellipsoidal) geodetic point to a Lambert location. Arguments: `latlon` - Ellipsoidal point (`LatLon`). `conic` - Optional Lambert projection to use (Conic). `height` - Optional height for the point, overriding the default height (`meter`). `Lcc` - Optional class to return the Lambert location (Lcc). `name` - Optional `Lcc` name (`str`). `Lcc_kwds` - Optional, additional `Lcc` keyword arguments, ignored if `Lcc` is `None`. Returns: The Lambert location (Lcc) or an EasNor3Tuple`(easting, northing, height)` if `Lcc is None`. Raises: `TypeError` - If `latlon` is not ellipsoidal.

### toMgrs (utmups, Mgrs=<class 'pygeodesy.mgrs.Mgrs'>, name='', **Mgrs_kwds) |
Convert a UTM or UPS coordinate to an MGRS grid reference. Arguments: `utmups` - A UTM or UPS coordinate (Utm, Etm or Ups). `Mgrs` - Optional class to return the MGRS grid reference (Mgrs) or `None`. `name` - Optional `Mgrs` name (`str`). `Mgrs_kwds` - Optional, additional `Mgrs` keyword arguments, ignored if `Mgrs is None`. Returns: The MGRS grid reference as `Mgrs` or if `Mgrs is None` as an Mgrs6Tuple`(zone, EN, easting, northing, band, datum)`. Raises: `MGRSError` - Invalid `utmups`. `TypeError` - If `utmups` is not Utm nor Etm nor Ups. Example:
    >>> u = Utm(31, 'N', 448251, 5411932)
    >>> m = u.toMgrs()  # 31U DQ 48251 11932

### toOsgr (latlon, lon=None, kTM=False, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transform=Tran`...`, Osgr=<class 'pygeodesy.osgr.Osgr'>, name='', **prec_Osgr_kwds) |
Convert a lat-/longitude point to an OSGR coordinate. Arguments: `latlon` - Latitude (`degrees`) or an (ellipsoidal) geodetic `LatLon` point. `lon` - Optional longitude in degrees (scalar or `None`). `kTM` - If `True` use Karney's Krüger method from module ktm, otherwise use the Ordnance Survey formulation (`bool`). `datum` - Optional datum to convert `lat, lon` from (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `Osgr` - Optional class to return the OSGR coordinate (Osgr) or `None`. `name` - Optional `Osgr` name (`str`). `prec_Osgr_kwds` - Optional truncate precision `prec=ndigits` and/or additional `Osgr` keyword arguments, ignored if `Osgr is None`. Returns: An (`Osgr`) instance or if `Osgr` is `None` an EasNor2Tuple`(easting, northing)`. Raises: `OSGRError` - Invalid `latlon` or `lon`. `TypeError` - Non-ellipsoidal `latlon` or invalid `datum`, `Osgr`, `Osgr_kwds` or conversion to `Datums.OSGB36` failed. Note: If isint`(prec)` both easting and northing are truncated to the given number of digits. Example:
    >>> p = LatLon(52.65798, 1.71605)
    >>> r = toOsgr(p)  # [G:TG, E:51409, N:13177]
    >>> # for conversion of (historical) OSGB36 lat-/longitude:
    >>> r = toOsgr(52.65757, 1.71791, datum=Datums.OSGB36)
    >>> # alternatively and using Krüger
    >>> r = p.toOsgr(kTM=True)  # [G:TG, E:51409, N:13177]

### toUps8 (latlon, lon=None, datum=None, Ups=<class 'pygeodesy.ups.Ups'>, pole='', falsed=True, strict=True, name='') |
Convert a lat-/longitude point to a UPS coordinate. Arguments: `latlon` - Latitude (`degrees`) or an (ellipsoidal) geodetic `LatLon` point. `lon` - Optional longitude (`degrees`) or `None` if `latlon` is a `LatLon`. `datum` - Optional datum for this UPS coordinate, overriding `latlon`'s datum (`Datum`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `Ups` - Optional class to return the UPS coordinate (Ups) or `None`. `pole` - Optional top/center of (stereographic) projection (`str`, `'N[orth]'` or `'S[outh]'`). `falsed` - False both easting and northing (`bool`). `strict` - Restrict `lat` to UPS ranges (`bool`). `name` - Optional `Ups` name (`str`). Returns: The UPS coordinate (`Ups`) or a UtmUps8Tuple`(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band, datum, convergence, scale)` if `Ups` is `None`. The `hemipole` is the `'N'|'S'` pole, the UPS projection top/center. Raises: `RangeError` - If `strict` and `lat` outside the valid UPS bands or if `lat` or `lon` outside the valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `TypeError` - If `latlon` is not ellipsoidal or `datum` invalid. `ValueError` - If `lon` value is missing or if `latlon` is invalid. See Also: Karney's C++ class UPS.

### toUtm (latlon, lon=None, datum=None, Utm=object(), cmoff=True, name='') |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.toUtm8. Returns: The UTM coordinate (`Utm`) or a 6-tuple `(zone, easting, northing, band, convergence, scale)` if `Utm` is `None` or `cmoff` is `False`. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### toUtm8 (latlon, lon=None, datum=None, Utm=<class 'pygeodesy.utm.Utm'>, falsed=True, name='', strict=True, zone=None, **cmoff) |
Convert a lat-/longitude point to a UTM coordinate. Arguments: `latlon` - Latitude (`degrees`) or an (ellipsoidal) geodetic `LatLon` point. `lon` - Optional longitude (`degrees`) or `None`. `datum` - Optional datum for this UTM coordinate, overriding `latlon`'s datum (Datum, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2 or a_f2Tuple). `Utm` - Optional class to return the UTM coordinate (Utm) or `None`. `falsed` - False both easting and northing (`bool`). `name` - Optional `Utm` name (`str`). `strict` - Restrict `lat` to UTM ranges (`bool`). `zone` - Optional UTM zone to enforce (`int` or `str`). `cmoff` - DEPRECATED, use `falsed`. Offset longitude from the zone's central meridian (`bool`). Returns: The UTM coordinate (`Utm`) or if `Utm` is `None` or not `falsed`, a UtmUps8Tuple`(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band, datum, convergence, scale)`. The `hemipole` is the `'N'|'S'` hemisphere. Raises: `RangeError` - If `lat` outside the valid UTM bands or if `lat` or `lon` outside the valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `TypeError` - Invalid `datum` or `latlon` not ellipsoidal. `UTMError` - Invalid `zone`. `ValueError` - If `lon` value is missing or if `latlon` is invalid. Note: Implements Karney’s method, using 8-th order Krüger series, giving results accurate to 5 nm (or better) for distances up to 3900 km from the central meridian. Example:
    >>> p = LatLon(48.8582, 2.2945)  # 31 N 448251.8 5411932.7
    >>> u = toUtm(p)  # 31 N 448252 5411933
    >>> p = LatLon(13.4125, 103.8667) # 48 N 377302.4 1483034.8
    >>> u = toUtm(p)  # 48 N 377302 1483035

### toUtmUps8 (latlon, lon=None, datum=None, falsed=True, Utm=<class 'pygeodesy.utm.Utm'>, Ups=<class 'pygeodesy.ups.Ups'>, pole='', name='', **cmoff) |
Convert a lat-/longitude point to a UTM or UPS coordinate. Arguments: `latlon` - Latitude (`degrees`) or an (ellipsoidal) geodetic `LatLon` point. `lon` - Optional longitude (`degrees`) or `None`. `datum` - Optional datum to use this UTM coordinate, overriding `latlon`'s datum (`Datum`). `falsed` - False both easting and northing (`bool`). `Utm` - Optional class to return the UTM coordinate (Utm) or `None`. `Ups` - Optional class to return the UPS coordinate (Ups) or `None`. `pole` - Optional top/center of UPS (stereographic) projection (`str`, `'N[orth]'` or `'S[outh]'`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). `cmoff` - DEPRECATED, use `falsed`. Offset longitude from zone's central meridian, for UTM only (`bool`). Returns: The UTM or UPS coordinate (`Utm` respectively `Ups`) or a UtmUps8Tuple`(zone, hemipole, easting, northing, band, datum, convergence, scale)` if `Utm` respectively `Ups` is `None` or `cmoff` is `False`. Raises: `RangeError` - If `lat` outside the valid UTM or UPS bands or if `lat` or `lon` outside the valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `TypeError` - If `latlon` is not ellipsoidal or `lon` value is missing of `datum` is invalid. `UTMUPSError` - UTM or UPS validation failed. `ValueError` - Invalid `lat` or `lon`. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.toUtm8 and pygeodesy.toUps8.

### toWm (latlon, lon=None, radius=6378137.0, Wm=<class 'pygeodesy.webmercator.Wm'>, name='', **Wm_kwds) |
Convert a lat-/longitude point to a WM coordinate. Arguments: `latlon` - Latitude (`degrees`) or an (ellipsoidal or spherical) geodetic `LatLon` point. `lon` - Optional longitude (`degrees` or `None`). `radius` - Optional earth radius (`meter`), overridden by the `latlon`'s equatorial radius. `Wm` - Optional class to return the WM coordinate (Wm) or `None`. `name` - Optional name (`str`). `Wm_kwds` - Optional, additional `Wm` keyword arguments, ignored if `Wm is None`. Returns: The WM coordinate (`Wm`) or if `Wm` is `None` an EasNorRadius3Tuple`(easting, northing, radius)`. Raises: `ValueError` - If `lon` value is missing, if `latlon` is not scalar, if `latlon` is beyond the valid WM range and pygeodesy.rangerrors is set to `True` or if `radius` is invalid. Example:
    >>> p = LatLon(48.8582, 2.2945)  # 448251.8 5411932.7
    >>> w = toWm(p)  # 448252 5411933
    >>> p = LatLon(13.4125, 103.8667)  # 377302.4 1483034.8
    >>> w = toWm(p)  # 377302 1483035

### toise2m (toises) |
Convert French toises to meter. Arguments: `toises` - Value in toises (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `meter` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `toises`. See Also: Function fathom2m.

### trfXform (reframe1, reframe2, epoch=None, xform=None, rates=None) |
Define a new Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF) conversion. Arguments: `reframe1` - Source reframe (RefFrame), converting from. `reframe2` - Destination reframe (RefFrame), converting to. `epoch` - Epoch, a fractional calendar year (`scalar` or `str`) or `None` for `reframe2.epoch`. `xform` - Helmert transform parameters (`Helmert7Tuple`). `rates` - Helmert rate parameters (`Helmert7Tuple`). Raises: `TRFError` - Invalid `epoch` or TRF conversion already exists.

### triAngle (a, b, c) |
Compute one angle of a triangle. Arguments: `a` - Adjacent triangle side length (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `b` - Adjacent triangle side length (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `c` - Opposite triangle side length (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). Returns: Angle in `radians` at triangle corner `C`, opposite triangle side `c`. Raises: `TriangleError` - Invalid or negative `a`, `b` or `c`. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.triAngle4 and pygeodesy.triSide.

### triAngle4 (a, b, c) |
Compute the angles of a triangle. Arguments: `a` - Length of the triangle side opposite of triangle corner `A` (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `b` - Length of the triangle side opposite of triangle corner `B` (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `c` - Length of the triangle side opposite of triangle corner `C` (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). Returns: TriAngle4Tuple`(radA, radB, radC, rIn)` with angles `radA`, `radB` and `radC` at triangle corners `A`, `B` and `C`, all in `radians` and the `InCircle` radius `rIn` aka `inradius`, same units as triangle sides `a`, `b` and `c`. Raises: `TriangleError` - Invalid or negative `a`, `b` or `c`. See Also: Function pygeodesy.triAngle.

### triSide (a, b, radC) |
Compute one side of a triangle. Arguments: `a` - Adjacent triangle side length (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `b` - Adjacent triangle side length (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `radC` - Angle included by sides `a` and `b`, opposite triangle side `c` (`radians`). Returns: Length of triangle side `c`, opposite triangle corner `C` and angle `radC`, same units as `a` and `b`. Raises: `TriangleError` - Invalid `a`, `b` or `radC`. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.sqrt_a, pygeodesy.triAngle, pygeodesy.triSide2 and pygeodesy.triSide4.

### triSide2 (b, c, radB) |
Compute one side and the opposite angle of a triangle. Arguments: `b` - Adjacent triangle side length (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `c` - Adjacent triangle side length (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `radB` - Angle included by sides `a` and `c`, opposite triangle side `b` (`radians`). Returns: TriSide2Tuple`(a, radA)` with triangle angle `radA` in `radians` and length of the opposite triangle side `a`, same units as `b` and `c`. Raises: `TriangleError` - Invalid `b` or `c` or either `b` or `radB` near zero. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.sqrt_a, pygeodesy.triSide and pygeodesy.triSide4.

### triSide4 (radA, radB, c) |
Compute two sides and the height of a triangle. Arguments: `radA` - Angle at triangle corner `A`, opposite triangle side `a` (non-negative `radians`). `radB` - Angle at triangle corner `B`, opposite triangle side `b` (non-negative `radians`). `c` - Length of triangle side between triangle corners `A` and `B`, (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). Returns: TriSide4Tuple`(a, b, radC, d)` with triangle sides `a` and `b` and triangle height `d` perpendicular to triangle side `c`, all in the same units as `c` and interior angle `radC` in `radians` at triangle corner `C`, opposite triangle side `c`. Raises: `TriangleError` - Invalid or negative `radA`, `radB` or `c`. See Also: Triangulation, Surveying and functions pygeodesy.sqrt_a, pygeodesy.triSide and pygeodesy.triSide2.

### trilaterate2d2 (x1, y1, radius1, x2, y2, radius2, x3, y3, radius3, eps=None, **Vector_and_kwds) |
Trilaterate three circles, each given as a (2-D) center and a radius. Arguments: `x1` - Center `x` coordinate of the 1st circle (`scalar`). `y1` - Center `y` coordinate of the 1st circle (`scalar`). `radius1` - Radius of the 1st circle (`scalar`). `x2` - Center `x` coordinate of the 2nd circle (`scalar`). `y2` - Center `y` coordinate of the 2nd circle (`scalar`). `radius2` - Radius of the 2nd circle (`scalar`). `x3` - Center `x` coordinate of the 3rd circle (`scalar`). `y3` - Center `y` coordinate of the 3rd circle (`scalar`). `radius3` - Radius of the 3rd circle (`scalar`). `eps` - Check the trilaterated point delta on all 3 circles (`scalar`) or `None`. `Vector_and_kwds` - Optional class `Vector=None` to return the trilateration and optional, additional `Vector` keyword arguments, otherwise (Vector3d). Returns: Trilaterated point as `Vector(x, y, **Vector_kwds)` or Vector2Tuple`(x, y)` if `Vector is None`.. Raises: `IntersectionError` - No intersection, near-concentric or -colinear centers, trilateration failed some other way or the trilaterated point is off one circle by more than `eps`. `UnitError` - Invalid `radius1`, `radius2` or `radius3`. See Also: Issue #49, Find X location using 3 known (X,Y) location using trilateration and function pygeodesy.trilaterate3d2.

### trilaterate3d2 (center1, radius1, center2, radius2, center3, radius3, eps=2.220446049250313e-16, **Vector_and_kwds) |
Trilaterate three spheres, each given as a (3-D) center and a radius. Arguments: `center1` - Center of the 1st sphere (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `radius1` - Radius of the 1st sphere (same `units` as `x`, `y` and `z`). `center2` - Center of the 2nd sphere (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `radius2` - Radius of this sphere (same `units` as `x`, `y` and `z`). `center3` - Center of the 3rd sphere (`Cartesian`, Vector3d, `Vector3Tuple` or `Vector4Tuple`). `radius3` - Radius of the 3rd sphere (same `units` as `x`, `y` and `z`). `eps` - Tolerance (`scalar`), same units as `x`, `y`, and `z`. `Vector_and_kwds` - Optional class `Vector=None` to return the trilateration and optional, additional `Vector` keyword arguments, otherwise `center1`'s (sub-)class. Returns: 2-Tuple with two trilaterated points, each a `Vector` instance. Both points are the same instance if all three spheres abut/intersect in a single point. Raises: `ImportError` - Package `numpy` not found, not installed or older than version 1.10. `IntersectionError` - Near-concentric, -colinear, too distant or non-intersecting spheres. `NumPyError` - Some `numpy` issue. `TypeError` - Invalid `center1`, `center2` or `center3`. `UnitError` - Invalid `radius1`, `radius2` or `radius3`. See Also: Norrdine, A. An Algebraic Solution to the Multilateration Problem, the implementation and function pygeodesy.trilaterate2d2.

### truncate (x, ndigits=None) |
Truncate to the given number of digits. Arguments: `x` - Value to truncate (`scalar`). `ndigits` - Number of digits (`int`), aka precision. Returns: Truncated `x` (`float`). See Also: Python function `round`.

### tyr3d (tilt=0, yaw=0, roll=0, Vector=<class 'pygeodesy.vector3d.Vector3d'>, **Vector_kwds) |
Convert an attitude oriention into a (3-D) direction vector. Arguments: `tilt` - Pitch, elevation from horizontal (`degrees`), negative down (clockwise rotation along and around the x-axis). `yaw` - Bearing, heading (compass `degrees360`), clockwise from North (counter-clockwise rotation along and around the z-axis). `roll` - Roll, bank (`degrees`), positive to the right and down (clockwise rotation along and around the y-axis). Returns: A named `Vector` instance or if `Vector` is `None`, a named Vector3Tuple`(x, y, z)`. See Also: Yaw, pitch, and roll rotations and function pygeodesy.hartzell argument `los`.

### unStr (name, *args, **kwds) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.unstr. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### unroll180 (lon1, lon2, wrap=True) |
Unroll longitudinal delta and wrap longitude in degrees. Arguments: `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `wrap` - Wrap and unroll to the (-180..+180] range (`bool`). Returns: 2-Tuple `(lon2-lon1, lon2)` unrolled (`degrees`, `degrees`). See Also: Capability `LONG_UNROLL` in GeographicLib.

### unrollPI (rad1, rad2, wrap=True) |
Unroll longitudinal delta and wrap longitude in radians. Arguments: `rad1` - Start longitude (`radians`). `rad2` - End longitude (`radians`). `wrap` - Wrap and unroll to the (-PI..+PI] range (`bool`). Returns: 2-Tuple `(rad2-rad1, rad2)` unrolled (`radians`, `radians`). See Also: Capability `LONG_UNROLL` in GeographicLib.

### unsign0 (x) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.unsigned0. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### unsigned0 (x) |
Return `0.0` unsigned. Returns: `x` if `x` else `0.0`.

### unstr (named, *args, **kwds) |
Return the string representation of an invokation. Arguments: `named` - Function, method or class name (`str`). `args` - Optional positional arguments. `kwds` - Optional keyword arguments, except `_ELLIPSIS=False`. Returns: Representation (`str`).

### upsZoneBand5 (lat, lon, strict=True, name='') |
Return the UTM/UPS zone number, polar Band letter, pole and clipped lat- and longitude for a given location. Arguments: `lat` - Latitude in degrees (`scalar` or `str`). `lon` - Longitude in degrees (`scalar` or `str`). `strict` - Restrict `lat` to UPS ranges (`bool`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: A UtmUpsLatLon5Tuple`(zone, band, hemipole, lat, lon)` where `hemipole` is the `'N'|'S'` pole, the UPS projection top/center and `lon` [-180..180). Raises: `RangeError` - If `strict` and `lat` in the UTM and not the UPS range or if `lat` or `lon` outside the valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `ValueError` - Invalid `lat` or `lon`. Note: The `lon` is set to `0` if `lat` is `-90` or `90`, see env variable `PYGEODESY_UPS_POLES` in module pygeodesy.ups.

### utmZoneBand2 (lat, lon) |
DEPRECATED, use function pygeodesy.utmZoneBand5. Returns: 2-Tuple `(zone, band)`. Decorators: `@deprecated_function`

### utmZoneBand5 (lat, lon, cmoff=False, name='') |
Return the UTM zone number, Band letter, hemisphere and (clipped) lat- and longitude for a given location. Arguments: `lat` - Latitude in degrees (`scalar` or `str`). `lon` - Longitude in degrees (`scalar` or `str`). `cmoff` - Offset longitude from the zone's central meridian (`bool`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: A UtmUpsLatLon5Tuple`(zone, band, hemipole, lat, lon)` where `hemipole` is the `'N'|'S'` UTM hemisphere. Raises: `RangeError` - If `lat` outside the valid UTM bands or if `lat` or `lon` outside the valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `ValueError` - Invalid `lat` or `lon`.

### utmupsValidate (coord, falsed=False, MGRS=False, Error=<class 'pygeodesy.utmups.UTMUPSError'>) |
Check a UTM or UPS coordinate. Arguments: `coord` - The UTM or UPS coordinate (Utm, Etm, Ups or `5+Tuple`). `falsed` - `5+Tuple` easting and northing are falsed (`bool`), ignored otherwise. `MGRS` - Increase easting and northing ranges (`bool`). `Error` - Optional error to raise, overriding the default (UTMUPSError). Returns: `None` if validation passed. Raises: `Error` - Validation failed. See Also: Function utmupsValidateOK.

### utmupsValidateOK (coord, falsed=False, ok=True) |
Check a UTM or UPS coordinate. Arguments: `coord` - The UTM or UPS coordinate (Utm, Ups or `5+Tuple`). `falsed` - `5+Tuple` easting and northing are falsed (`bool`). `ok` - Result to return if validation passed (`ok`). Returns: `ok` if validation passed, the UTMUPSError otherwise. See Also: Function utmupsValidate.

### utmupsZoneBand5 (lat, lon, cmoff=False, name='') |
Return the UTM/UPS zone number, Band letter, hemisphere/pole and clipped lat- and longitude for a given location. Arguments: `lat` - Latitude in degrees (`scalar` or `str`). `lon` - Longitude in degrees (`scalar` or `str`). `cmoff` - Offset longitude from the zone's central meridian, for UTM only (`bool`). `name` - Optional name (`str`). Returns: A UtmUpsLatLon5Tuple`(zone, band, hemipole, lat, lon)` where `hemipole` is `'N'|'S'`, the UTM hemisphere or UPS pole, the UPS projection top/center. Raises: `RangeError` - If `lat` outside the valid UTM or UPS bands or if `lat` or `lon` outside the valid range and pygeodesy.rangerrors set to `True`. `ValueError` - Invalid `lat` or `lon`. See Also: Functions pygeodesy.utmZoneBand5 and pygeodesy.upsZoneBand5.

### vincentys (lat1, lon1, lat2, lon2, radius=6371008.771415, wrap=False) |
Compute the distance between two (spherical) points using Vincenty's spherical formula. Arguments: `lat1` - Start latitude (`degrees`). `lon1` - Start longitude (`degrees`). `lat2` - End latitude (`degrees`). `lon2` - End longitude (`degrees`). `radius` - Mean earth radius, ellipsoid or datum (`meter`, Ellipsoid, Ellipsoid2, Datum or a_f2Tuple). `wrap` - Wrap and pygeodesy.unroll180 longitudes (`bool`). Returns: Distance (`meter`, same units as `radius`). Raises: `UnitError` - Invalid `radius`. See Also: Functions vincentys_, cosineAndoyerLambert, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert,cosineLaw, equirectangular, euclidean, flatLocal/hubeny, flatPolar, haversine and thomas and methods Ellipsoid.distance2, `LatLon.distanceTo*` and `LatLon.equirectangularTo`. Note: See note at function vincentys_.

### vincentys_ (phi2, phi1, lam21) |
Compute the angular distance between two (spherical) points using Vincenty's spherical formula. Arguments: `phi2` - End latitude (`radians`). `phi1` - Start latitude (`radians`). `lam21` - Longitudinal delta, end-start (`radians`). Returns: Angular distance (`radians`). See Also: Functions vincentys, cosineAndoyerLambert_, cosineForsytheAndoyerLambert_, cosineLaw_, equirectangular_, euclidean_, flatLocal_/hubeny_, flatPolar_, haversine_ and thomas_. Note: Functions vincentys_, haversine_ and cosineLaw_ produce equivalent results, but vincentys_ is suitable for antipodal points and slightly more expensive (3 cos, 3 sin, 1 hypot, 1 atan2, 6 mul, 2 add) than haversine_ (2 cos, 2 sin, 2 sqrt, 1 atan2, 5 mul, 1 add) and cosineLaw_ (3 cos, 3 sin, 1 acos, 3 mul, 1 add).

### wildberger3 (a, b, c, alpha, beta, R3=<built-in function min>) |
Snellius' surveying using Rational Trigonometry. Arguments: `a` - Length of the triangle side between corners `B` and `C` and opposite of triangle corner `A` (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `b` - Length of the triangle side between corners `C` and `A` and opposite of triangle corner `B` (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `c` - Length of the triangle side between corners `A` and `B` and opposite of triangle corner `C` (`scalar`, non-negative `meter`, conventionally). `alpha` - Angle subtended by triangle side `b` (`degrees`, non-negative). `beta` - Angle subtended by triangle side `a` (`degrees`, non-negative). `R3` - Callable to determine `R3` from `(R3 - C)**2 = D`, typically standard function `min` or `max`, invoked with 2 arguments. Returns: Survey3Tuple`(PA, PB, PC)` with distance from survey point `P` to each of the triangle corners `A`, `B` and `C`, same units as `a`, `b` and `c`. Raises: `TriangleError` - Invalid `a`, `b` or `c` or negative `alpha` or `beta` or `R3` not `callable`. See Also: Wildberger, Norman J., Devine Proportions, page 252 and function pygeodesy.snellius3.

### wrap180 (deg) |
Wrap degrees to [-180..+180]. Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). Returns: Degrees, wrapped (`degrees180`).

### wrap360 (deg) |
Wrap degrees to [0..+360). Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). Returns: Degrees, wrapped (`degrees360`).

### wrap90 (deg) |
Wrap degrees to [-270..+90]. Arguments: `deg` - Angle (`degrees`). Returns: Degrees, wrapped (`degrees90`).

### wrapPI (rad) |
Wrap radians to [-PI..+PI]. Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: Radians, wrapped (`radiansPI`).

### wrapPI2 (rad) |
Wrap radians to [0..+2PI). Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: Radians, wrapped (`radiansPI2`).

### wrapPI_2 (rad) |
Wrap radians to [-3PI/2..+PI/2]. Arguments: `rad` - Angle (`radians`). Returns: Radians, wrapped (`radiansPI_2`).

### yard2m (yards) |
Convert UK yards to meter. Arguments: `yards` - Value in yards (`scalar`). Returns: Value in `meter` (`float`). Raises: `ValueError` - Invalid `yards`.

Variables Details

  ### pygeodesy_abspath Fully qualified `pygeodesy` directory name (`str`). Value:
      '..../PyGeodesy/pygeodesy'

  ### Conics Registered, predefined conics (`enum-like`). Value:
      Conics.WRF_Lb: Conic(name='WRF_Lb', lat0=40, lon0=-97, par1=33, par2=4
      5, E0=0, N0=0, k0=1, SP=2, datum=Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipso
      ids.WGS84, transform=Transforms.WGS84)

  ### Datums Registered, predefined datums (`enum-like`). Value:
      Datums.OSGB36: Datum(name='OSGB36', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.Airy1830, tra
      nsform=Transforms.OSGB36),
      Datums.WGS84: Datum(name='WGS84', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.WGS84, transfor
      m=Transforms.WGS84),
      Datums.Sphere: Datum(name='Sphere', ellipsoid=Ellipsoids.Sphere, trans
      form=Transforms.WGS84)

  ### Ellipsoids Registered, predefined ellipsoids (`enum-like`). Value:
      Ellipsoids.Sphere: Ellipsoid(name='Sphere', a=6371008.771415, b=637100
      8.771415, f_=0, f=0, f2=0, n=0, e=0, e2=0, e22=0, e32=0, A=6371008.771
      415, L=10007557.17611675, R1=6371008.771415, R2=6371008.771415, R3=637
      1008.771415, Rbiaxial=6371008.771415, Rtriaxial=6371008.771415),
      Ellipsoids.WGS84: Ellipsoid(name='WGS84', a=6378137, b=6356752.3142451
      8, f_=298.25722356, f=0.00335281, f2=0.00336409, n=0.00167922, e=0.081
      81919, e2=0.00669438, e22=0.0067395, e32=0.00335843, A=6367449.1458234
      1, L=10001965.72931272, R1=6371008.77141506, R2=6371007.18091847, R3=6
      ...

  ### Transforms Registered, predefined transforms (`enum-like`). Value:
      Transforms.OSGB36: Transform(name='OSGB36', tx=-446.448, ty=125.157, t
      z=-542.06, rx=-0, ry=-0, rz=-0, s=20.4894, s1=1.00002, sx=-0.1502, sy=
      -0.247, sz=-0.8421),
      Transforms.WGS84: Transform(name='WGS84', tx=0, ty=0, tz=0, rx=0, ry=0
      , rz=0, s=0, s1=1, sx=0, sy=0, sz=0)